Adams JH, Doyle D, Ford I, Gennarelli TA, Graham DI, McLellan DR (1989) Diffuse axonal injury in head injury: definition, diagnosis and grading. Histopathology 15:49–59

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Adams JH, Graham DI, Gennarelli TA, Maxwell WL (1991) Diffuse axonal injury in non-missile head injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 54:481–483

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Adams JH, Graham DI, Murray LS, Scott G (1982) Diffuse axonal injury due to nonmissile head injury in humans: an analysis of 45 cases. Ann Neurol 12:557–563

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Al Nimer F, Thelin E, Nystrom H, Dring AM, Svenningsson A, Piehl F, Nelson DW, Bellander BM (2015) comparative assessment of the prognostic value of biomarkers in traumatic brain injury reveals an independent role for serum levels of neurofilament light. PLoS ONE 10:e0132177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0132177

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Alvarez JI, Saint-Laurent O, Godschalk A, Terouz S, Briels C, Larouche S, Bourbonniere L, Larochelle C, Prat A (2015) Focal disturbances in the blood-brain barrier are associated with formation of neuroinflammatory lesions. Neurobiol Dis 74:14–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nbd.2014.09.016

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Asken BM, Yang Z, Xu H, Weber AG, Hayes RL, Bauer RM, DeKosky ST, Jaffee MS, Wang KKW, Clugston JR (2020) Acute effects of sport-related concussion on serum glial fibrillary acidic protein, ubiquitin C-Terminal hydrolase L1, total Tau, and neurofilament light measured by a multiplex assay. J Neurotrauma 37:1537–1545. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2019.6831

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bagnato S, Grimaldi LME, Di Raimondo G, Sant’Angelo A, Boccagni C, Virgilio V, Andriolo M (2017) Prolonged cerebrospinal fluid neurofilament light chain increase in patients with post-traumatic disorders of consciousness. J Neurotrauma 34:2475–2479. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2016.4837

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Baskaya MK, Rao AM, Dogan A, Donaldson D, Dempsey RJ (1997) The biphasic opening of the blood-brain barrier in the cortex and hippocampus after traumatic brain injury in rats. Neurosci Lett 226:33–36

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Blumbergs PC, Scott G, Manavis J, Wainwright H, Simpson DA, McLean AJ (1994) Staining of amyloid precursor protein to study axonal damage in mild head injury. Lancet 344:1055–1056

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Blumbergs PC, Scott G, Manavis J, Wainwright H, Simpson DA, McLean AJ (1995) Topography of axonal injury as defined by amyloid precursor protein and the sector scoring method in mild and severe closed head injury. J Neurotrauma 12:565–572

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bridges LR, Andoh J, Lawrence AJ, Khoong CH, Poon WW, Esiri MM, Markus HS, Hainsworth AH (2014) Blood-brain barrier dysfunction and cerebral small vessel disease (arteriolosclerosis) in brains of older people. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 73:1026–1033. https://doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0000000000000124

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Browne KD, Chen XH, Meaney DF, Smith DH (2011) Mild traumatic brain injury and diffuse axonal injury in swine. J Neurotrauma 28:1747–1755. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2011.1913

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Buki A, Farkas O, Doczi T, Povlishock JT (2003) Preinjury administration of the calpain inhibitor MDL-28170 attenuates traumatically induced axonal injury. J Neurotrauma 20:261–268. https://doi.org/10.1089/089771503321532842

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Buki A, Koizumi H, Povlishock JT (1999) Moderate posttraumatic hypothermia decreases early calpain-mediated proteolysis and concomitant cytoskeletal compromise in traumatic axonal injury. Exp Neurol 159:319–328. https://doi.org/10.1006/exnr.1999.7139S0014-4886(99)97139-X[pii]

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Buki A, Okonkwo DO, Povlishock JT (1999) Postinjury cyclosporin A administration limits axonal damage and disconnection in traumatic brain injury. J Neurotrauma 16:511–521

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Buki A, Siman R, Trojanowski JQ, Povlishock JT (1999) The role of calpain-mediated spectrin proteolysis in traumatically induced axonal injury. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 58:365–375

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Christensen J, Wright DK, Yamakawa GR, Shultz SR, Mychasiuk R (2020) Repetitive mild traumatic brain injury alters glymphatic clearance rates in limbic structures of adolescent female rats. Sci Rep 10:6254. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-63022-7

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Christman CW, Salvant JB Jr, Walker SA, Povlishock JT (1997) Characterization of a prolonged regenerative attempt by diffusely injured axons following traumatic brain injury in adult cat: a light and electron microscopic immunocytochemical study. Acta Neuropathol 94:329–337

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Disanto G, Barro C, Benkert P, Naegelin Y, Schadelin S, Giardiello A, Zecca C, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Leppert D et al (2017) Serum Neurofilament light: a biomarker of neuronal damage in multiple sclerosis. Ann Neurol 81:857–870. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.24954

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Eierud C, Craddock RC, Fletcher S, Aulakh M, King-Casas B, Kuehl D, LaConte SM (2014) Neuroimaging after mild traumatic brain injury: review and meta-analysis. NeuroImage Clinical 4:283–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2013.12.009

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gaetani L, Blennow K, Calabresi P, Di Filippo M, Parnetti L, Zetterberg H (2019) Neurofilament light chain as a biomarker in neurological disorders. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 90:870–881. https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp-2018-320106

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gennarelli TA, Thibault LE, Adams JH, Graham DI, Thompson CJ, Marcincin RP (1982) Diffuse axonal injury and traumatic coma in the primate. Ann Neurol 12:564–574. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.410120611

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gentleman SM, Nash MJ, Sweeting CJ, Graham DI, Roberts GW (1993) Beta-amyloid precursor protein (beta APP) as a marker for axonal injury after head injury. Neurosci Lett 160:139–144

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gentleman SM, Roberts GW, Gennarelli TA, Maxwell WL, Adams JH, Kerr S, Graham DI (1995) Axonal injury: a universal consequence of fatal closed head injury? Acta Neuropathol 89:537–543

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gerberding JL BS (2003) Report to congress ontraumatic brain injury in the United States: steps to prevent a serious public health problem. National center for injuy prevention and control, centers for disease control and prevention. City

Grady MS, McLaughlin MR, Christman CW, Valadka AB, Fligner CL, Povlishock JT (1993) The use of antibodies targeted against the neurofilament subunits for the detection of diffuse axonal injury in humans. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 52:143–152

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Graham NSN, Zimmerman KA, Moro F, Heslegrave A, Maillard SA, Bernini A, Miroz JP, Donat CK, Lopez MY, Bourke N et al (2021) Axonal marker neurofilament light predicts long-term outcomes and progressive neurodegeneration after traumatic brain injury. Sci Transl Med. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.abg9922

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hay JR, Johnson VE, Young AM, Smith DH, Stewart W (2015) Blood-brain barrier disruption is an early event that may persist for many years after traumatic brain injury in humans. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 74:1147–1157. https://doi.org/10.1097/NEN.0000000000000261

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Holbourn AHS (1945) Mechanics of brain injuries. Brit Med Bull 3:147–149

Article