Greenhalgh T, Sivan M, Perlowski A, Nikolich JŽ. Long COVID: a clinical update. Lancet. 2024;404:707–24.
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Davis HE, McCorkell L, Vogel JM, Topol EJ. Long COVID: major findings, mechanisms and recommendations. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2023;21:133–46.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
CDC. Long COVID Basics; 2025. https://www.cdc.gov/covid/long-term-effects/index.html.
Michelutti M, Furlanis G, Buoite Stella A, Bellavita G, Frezza N, Torresin G, et al. Sex-dependent characteristics of neuro-long-COVID: data from a dedicated neurology ambulatory service. J Neurol Sci. 2022;441:120355.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Zeng F, Dai C, Cai P, Wang J, Xu L, Li J, et al. A comparison study of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody between male and female COVID-19 patients: a possible reason underlying different outcome between sex. J Med Virol. 2020;92:2050–4.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
de Melo BP, da Silva JAM, Rodrigues MA, Palmeira JdaF, Saldanha-Araujo F, Argañaraz GA, et al. SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and long COVID—part 1: impact of spike protein in pathophysiological mechanisms of long COVID syndrome. Viruses. 2025;17:617.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Swank Z, Senussi Y, Manickas-Hill Z, Yu XG, Li JZ, Alter G, et al. Persistent circulating severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 spike is associated with post-acute coronavirus disease 2019 sequelae. Clin Infect Dis. 2023;76:e487–90.
Skevaki C, Moschopoulos CD, Fragkou PC, Grote K, Schieffer E, Schieffer B. Long COVID: pathophysiology, current concepts, and future directions. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2025;155:1059–70.
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Peluso MJ, Deeks SG. Mechanisms of long COVID and the path toward therapeutics. Cell. 2024;187:5500–29.
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Craddock V, Mahajan A, Spikes L, Krishnamachary B, Ram AK, Kumar A, et al. Persistent circulation of soluble and extracellular vesicle-linked Spike protein in individuals with postacute sequelae of COVID-19. J Med Virol. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.28568.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Fineberg HV, Brown L, Worku T, Goldowitz I, editors. A long COVID definition. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press; 2024.
Venkatesan P. NICE guideline on long COVID. Lancet Respir Med. 2021;9:129.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Narayanan SN, Padiyath S, Chandrababu K, Raj L, Ninan GA, et al. Neurological, psychological, psychosocial complications of long-COVID and their management. Neurol Sci. 2025;46:1–23.
Furlanis G, Buoite Stella A, Torresin G, Michelutti M, Ajčević M, Manganotti P. Neurological long-COVID: associations among fatigue, dysautonomia, depression, and subjective memory complaints. Clin Neurol Neurosurg. 2024;246:108522.
Greenhalgh T, Sivan M, Perlowski A, Nikolich J. Long COVID: a clinical update. Lancet. 2024;8:707–24.
Rahmati M, Udeh R, Yon DK, Lee SW, Dolja-Gore X, McEVoy M, et al. A systematic review and meta-analysis of long-term sequelae of COVID-19 2-year after SARS-CoV-2 infection: a call to action for neurological, physical, and psychological sciences. J Med Virol. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.28852.
Leng A, Shah M, Ahmad SA, Premraj L, Wildi K, Li Bassi G, et al. Pathogenesis underlying neurological manifestations of long COVID syndrome and potential therapeutics. Cells. 2023;12:816.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Premraj L, Kannapadi NV, Briggs J, Seal SM, Battaglini D, Fanning J, et al. Mid and long-term neurological and neuropsychiatric manifestations of post-COVID-19 syndrome: a meta-analysis. J Neurol Sci. 2022;434:120162.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Bai F, Tomasoni D, Falcinella C, Barbanotti D, Castoldi R, Mulè G, et al. Female gender is associated with long COVID syndrome: a prospective cohort study. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2022;28:611.e9-611.e16.
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Hamlin RE, Pienkos SM, Chan L, Stabile MA, Pinedo K, Rao M, et al. Sex differences and immune correlates of long Covid development, symptom persistence, and resolution. Sci Transl Med. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.adr1032.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Mansell V, Hall Dykgraaf S, Kidd M, Goodyear-Smith F. Long COVID and older people. Lancet Healthy Longev. 2022;3:e849–54.
Daitch V, Yelin D, Awwad M, Guaraldi G, Milić J, Mussini C, et al. Characteristics of long-COVID among older adults: a cross-sectional study. Int J Infect Dis. 2022;125:287–93.
Xu E, Xie Y, Al-Aly Z. Long-term neurologic outcomes of COVID-19. Nat Med. 2022;28:2406–15.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Wulf Hanson S, Abbafati C, Aerts JG, Al-Aly Z, Ashbaugh C, Ballouz T, et al. Estimated global proportions of individuals with persistent fatigue, cognitive, and respiratory symptom clusters following symptomatic COVID-19 in 2020 and 2021. JAMA. 2022;328:1604.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Soriano JB, Murthy S, Marshall JC, Relan P, Diaz JV. A clinical case definition of post-COVID-19 condition by a Delphi consensus. Lancet Infect Dis. 2022;22:e102–7.
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Nurek M, Rayner C, Freyer A, Taylor S, Järte L, MacDermott N, et al. Recommendations for the recognition, diagnosis, and management of long COVID: a Delphi study. Br J Gen Pract. 2021;71:e815–25.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Cisneros IE, Cunningham KA. Covid-19 interface with drug misuse and substance use disorders. Neuropharmacology. 2021;198:108766.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Meinhardt J, Streit S, Dittmayer C, Manitius Rv, Radbruch H, Heppner FL. The neurobiology of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2024;25:30–42.
Article PubMed CAS Google Scholar
Li J, Zhou Y, Ma J, Zhang Q, Shao J, Liang S, et al. The long-term health outcomes, pathophysiological mechanisms and multidisciplinary management of long COVID. Signal Transduct Target Ther. 2023;8:416.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Douaud G, Lee S, Alfaro-Almagro F, Arthofer C, Wang C, McCarthy P, et al. SARS-CoV-2 is associated with changes in brain structure in UK Biobank. Nature. 2022;604:697–707.
Article PubMed PubMed Central CAS Google Scholar
Chagas LdaS, Serfaty CA. The influence of microglia on neuroplasticity and long-term cognitive sequelae in long COVID: impacts on brain development and beyond. Int J Mol Sci. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms25073819.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Yang AC, Kern F, Losada PM, Agam MR, Maat CA, Schmartz GP, et al. Dysregulation of brain and choroid plexus cell types in severe COVID-19. Nature. 2021;595:565–71.
Comments (0)