Venkat P, Chopp M, Chen J. Models and mechanisms of vascular dementia. Exp Neurol. 2015;272:97–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.05.006.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Burns A, Iliffe S. Dementia. Bmj. 2009;338:b75. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.b75.
•• Nordestgaard LT, Christoffersen M, Afzal S, Nordestgaard BG, Tybjærg-Hansen A, Frikke-Schmidt R. Triglycerides as a shared risk factor between dementia and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a study of 125 727 individuals. Clin Chem. 2021;67(1):245–55. https://doi.org/10.1093/clinchem/hvaa269. This study demonstrated that plasma triglycerides are a common risk factor between dementia and atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, and that moderate hypertriglyceridemia is associated with an increased risk of non-Alzheimer dementia and ischaemic stroke.
Xue-Shan Z, Juan P, Qi W, Zhong R, Li-Hong P, Zhi-Han T, et al. Imbalanced cholesterol metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease. Clin Chim Acta. 2016;456:107–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2016.02.024.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Feng X, Chan KL, Lan L, Abrigo J, Liu J, Fang H, et al. Stroke mechanisms in symptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic disease: classification and clinical implications. Stroke. 2019;50(10):2692–9. https://doi.org/10.1161/strokeaha.119.025732.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Estimation of the global prevalence of dementia in 2019 and forecasted prevalence in 2050: an analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019. Lancet Public Health. 2022;7(2):e105-e25. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2468-2667(21)00249-8.
Chiong W, Tsou AY, Simmons Z, Bonnie RJ, Russell JA. Ethical considerations in dementia diagnosis and care: AAN position statement. Neurology. 2021;97(2):80–9. https://doi.org/10.1212/wnl.0000000000012079.
•• Liu Y, Chan DKY, Thalamuthu A, Wen W, Jiang J, Paradise M, et al. Plasma lipidomic biomarker analysis reveals distinct lipid changes in vascular dementia. Comput Struct Biotechnol J. 2020;18:1613–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.csbj.2020.06.001. By analysing biomarkers of plasma lipidomics in VaD patients and healthy controls, the study found that plasma lipid levels, particularly Cer and ChE, were abnormal in VaD compared to controls, and that these differences may help to distinguish them from healthy controls and provide insight into the pathophysiology of VaD.
Luo J, Yang H, Song BL. Mechanisms and regulation of cholesterol homeostasis. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2020;21(4):225–45. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41580-019-0190-7.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Moroney JT, Tang MX, Berglund L, Small S, Merchant C, Bell K, et al. Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and the risk of dementia with stroke. JAMA. 1999;282(3):254–60. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.282.3.254.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Zheng J, Wang J, Zhang Y, Xia J, Guo H, Hu H, et al. The global burden of diseases attributed to high low-density lipoprotein cholesterol from 1990 to 2019. Front Public Health. 2022;10:891929. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.891929.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
•• Zhang X, Geng T, Li N, Wu L, Wang Y, Zheng D, et al. Associations of lipids and lipid-lowering drugs with risk of vascular dementia: a mendelian randomization study. Nutrients. 2022;15(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15010069. The results of the Mendelian Randomisation study, which suggests that lower HDL-C levels may lead to an increased risk of VaD, support the idea that lowering LDL-C levels with statins may be an effective preventive strategy to reduce the risk of VaD, but clinical trials will be needed to confirm this result in the future.
Okamoto K, Tanaka M, Kondo S. Treatment of vascular dementia. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2002;977:507–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04858.x.
Rundek T, Tolea M, Ariko T, Fagerli EA, Camargo CJ. Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). Neurotherapeutics. 2022;19(1):68–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-021-01170-y.
Solomon A, Kivipelto M, Wolozin B, Zhou J, Whitmer RA. Midlife serum cholesterol and increased risk of Alzheimer’s and vascular dementia three decades later. Dement Geriatr Cogn Disord. 2009;28(1):75–80. https://doi.org/10.1159/000231980.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Anstey KJ, Ashby-Mitchell K, Peters R. Updating the evidence on the association between serum cholesterol and risk of late-life dementia: review and meta-analysis. J Alzheimers Dis. 2017;56(1):215–28. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-160826.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Perez L, Heim L, Sherzai A, Jaceldo-Siegl K, Sherzai A. Nutrition and vascular dementia. J Nutr Health Aging. 2012;16(4):319–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-012-0042-z.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Li G, Shofer JB, Kukull WA, Peskind ER, Tsuang DW, Breitner JC, et al. Serum cholesterol and risk of Alzheimer disease: a community-based cohort study. Neurology. 2005;65(7):1045–50. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000178989.87072.11.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Gong J, Harris K, Peters SAE, Woodward M. Serum lipid traits and the risk of dementia: A cohort study of 254,575 women and 214,891 men in the UK Biobank. EClinicalMedicine. 2022;54:101695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101695. A cohort study has shown that apolipoproteins and their ratios are associated with dementia risk. It may be prudent to consider apolipoproteins and circulating cholesterol when assessing dementia risk.
• Collado A, Domingo E, Marques P, Perello E, Martínez-Hervás S, Piqueras L, et al. Oral unsaturated fat load impairs postprandial systemic inflammation in primary hypercholesterolemia patients. Front Pharmacol. 2021;12:656244. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2021.656244. Primary hypercholesterolaemia (PH) is a lipid disorder that can lead to low-grade systemic inflammation, and this study suggests that oral administration of unsaturated fatty acids has beneficial effects on the pro-thrombotic and pro-inflammatory state of patients with PH.
Catapano AL, Pirillo A, Norata GD. Vascular inflammation and low-density lipoproteins: is cholesterol the link? A lesson from the clinical trials. Br J Pharmacol. 2017;174(22):3973–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13805.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Namiri-Kalantari R, Gao F, Chattopadhyay A, Wheeler AA, Navab KD, Farias-Eisner R, et al. The dual nature of HDL: anti-Inflammatory and pro-Inflammatory. BioFactors. 2015;41(3):153–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.1205.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Fu Z, Zhou E, Wang X, Tian M, Kong J, Li J, et al. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein-induced microparticles promote endothelial monocyte adhesion via intercellular adhesion molecule 1. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2017;313(5):C567–74. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpcell.00158.2016.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Qureshi AI, Caplan LR. Intracranial atherosclerosis. Lancet. 2014;383(9921):984–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61088-0.
• Fakih W, Zeitoun R, AlZaim I, Eid AH, Kobeissy F, Abd-Elrahman KS, et al. Early metabolic impairment as a contributor to neurodegenerative disease: mechanisms and potential pharmacological intervention. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2022;30(5):982–93. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23400. This study demonstrates that metabolic dysfunction has been shown to cause direct damage to the smooth muscle and endothelial components of the vascular system, leading to vascular dysfunction and hyperreactivity. This in turn leads to cerebral vasoconstriction and insufficient perfusion, ultimately leading to cognitive deficits.
Zhou Y, Peng Z, Seven ES, Leblanc RM. Crossing the blood-brain barrier with nanoparticles. J Control Release. 2018;270:290–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2017.12.015.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Takechi R, Galloway S, Pallebage-Gamarallage MM, Lam V, Mamo JC. Dietary fats, cerebrovasculature integrity and Alzheimer’s disease risk. Prog Lipid Res. 2010;49(2):159–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2009.10.004.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Rudge JD. The lipid invasion model: growing evidence for this new explanation of Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis. 2023;94(2):457–70. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-221175.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Rudge JD. A new hypothesis for Alzheimer’s disease: the lipid invasion model. J Alzheimers Dis Rep. 2022;6(1):129–61. https://doi.org/10.3233/adr-210299.
Article PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Lin Z, Sur S, Liu P, Li Y, Jiang D, Hou X, et al. Blood-brain barrier breakdown in relationship to alzheimer and vascular disease. Ann Neurol. 2021;90(2):227–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.26134.
Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
Liang YQ, Kakino A, Matsuzaka Y, Mashimo T, Isono M, Akamatsu T, et al. LOX-1 (Lectin-Like Oxidized Low-Density Lipoprotein Receptor-1) deletion has protective effects on stroke in the genetic background of stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat. Stroke. 2020;51(6):1835–43. https://doi.org/10.1161/strokeaha.120.029421.
Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
Wang HH, Hsieh HL, Wu CY, Sun CC, Yang CM. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein induces matrix metalloproteinase-9 expression via a p42/p44 and JNK-dependent AP-1 pathway in brain astrocytes. Glia. 2009;57(1):24–38. https://doi.org/10.1002/glia.20732.
Napoli C. Oxidation
Comments (0)