Mallol, J. et al. International prevalence of recurrent wheezing during the first year of life: Variability, treatment patterns and use of health resources. Thorax 65, 1004–1009, https://doi.org/10.1136/thx.2009.115188 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ly, N. P., Gold, D. R., Weiss, S. T. & Celedón, J. C. Recurrent wheeze in early childhood and asthma among children at risk for atopy. Pediatrics 117, e1132–e1138, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2005-2271 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Leader, S. & Kohlhase, K. Recent trends in severe respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) among US infants, 1997 to 2000. J. Pediatr. 143, 127–132, https://doi.org/10.1067/S0022-3476(03)00510-9 (2003).

Article  Google Scholar 

Chang, A. B., Chang, C. C., O’Grady, K. & Torzillo, P. J. Lower respiratory tract infections. Pediatr. Clin. North Am. 56, 1303–1321, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2009.09.003 (2009).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zorc, J. J. & Hall, C. B. Bronchiolitis: Recent evidence on diagnosis and management. Pediatrics 125, 342–349, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2009-2092 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jartti, T. & Korppi, M. Rhinovirus-induced bronchiolitis and asthma development. Pediatr. Allergy Immunol. 22, 350–355, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-3038.2011.01170.x (2011).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Beigelman, A. & Bacharier, L. B. The role of early life viral bronchiolitis in the inception of asthma. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 13, 211–216, https://doi.org/10.1097/ACI.0b013e32835eb6ef (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bisgaard, H. & Szefler, S. Prevalence of asthma-like symptoms in young children. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 42, 723–728, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.20644 (2007).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Beigelman, A. et al. Randomized trial to evaluate azithromycin’s effects on serum and upper airway IL-8 levels and recurrent wheezing in infants with respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 135, 1171–1178.e1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.10.001 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McCallum G. B. et al. Three-weekly doses of azithromycin for indigenous infants hospitalized with bronchiolitis: A multicentre, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Front Pediatr. 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2015.00032 (2015).

Mummidi, P. S., Tripathy, R., Dwibedi, B., Mahapatra, A. & Baraha, S. Viral aetiology of wheezing in children under five. Indian J. Med. Res. 145, 189–193, https://doi.org/10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_840_15 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bisgaard, H. et al. Association of bacteria and viruses with wheezy episodes in young children: Prospective birth cohort study. BMJ (Online) 341, 770, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c4978 (2010).

Article  Google Scholar 

Martinez, F. Role of macrolide therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int J. Chron. Obstruct Pulmon Dis. ume 3, 331–350, https://doi.org/10.2147/COPD.S681 (2008).

Article  Google Scholar 

Ghimire, J. J. et al. Azithromycin for poorly controlled asthma in children. Chest 161, 1456–1464, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2022.02.025 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pinto, L. A. et al. Effect of clarithromycin on the cell profile of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid in mice with neutrophil-predominant lung disease. Rev. Hosp. Clin. Fac. Med Sao Paulo 59, 99–103, https://doi.org/10.1590/S0041-87812004000300002 (2004).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Friedlander, A. L. & Albert, R. K. Chronic Macrolide Therapy in Inflammatory Airways Diseases. Chest 138, 1202–1212, https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.10-0196 (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kanoh, S. & Rubin, B. K. Mechanisms of action and clinical application of macrolides as immunomodulatory medications. Clin. Microbiol Rev. 23, 590–615, https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00078-09 (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bacharier, L. B. et al. Early administration of azithromycin and prevention of severe lower respiratory tract illnesses in preschool children with a history of such illnesses. JAMA 314, 2034, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2015.13896 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kricker, J. A. et al. NoNantimicrobial Actions Of Macrolides: Overview and perspectives for future development. Pharm. Rev. 73, 1404–1433, https://doi.org/10.1124/pharmrev.121.000300 (2021).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Halldorsson, S. et al. Azithromycin maintains airway epithelial integrity during Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 42, 62–68, https://doi.org/10.1165/rcmb.2008-0357OC (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Luisi, F. L. et al. Azithromycin administered for acute bronchiolitis may have a protective effect on subsequent wheezing. J. Brasileiro de. Pneumologia 46, e20180376–e20180376, https://doi.org/10.36416/1806-3756/e20180376 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Stokholm, J. et al. Azithromycin for episodes with asthma-like symptoms in young children aged 1–3 years: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Respir. Med. 4, 19–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(15)00500-7 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kneyber, M. C. J., van Woensel, J. B. M., Uijtendaal, E., Uiterwaal, C. S. P. M. & Kimpen, J. L. L. Azithromycin does not improve disease course in hospitalized infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) lower respiratory tract disease: A randomized equivalence trial. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 43, 142–149, https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.20748 (2008).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kong, M. et al. Azithromycin treatment vs placebo in children with respiratory syncytial virus–induced respiratory failure. JAMA Netw. Open 3, e203482, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3482 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Simoes, E. A. F. et al. Palivizumab prophylaxis, respiratory syncytial virus, and subsequent recurrent wheezing. J. Pediatr. 151, 34–42.e1, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2007.02.032 (2007).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yoshihara, S. et al. Effect of palivizumab prophylaxis on subsequent recurrent wheezing in preterm infants. Pediatrics 132, 811–818, https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2013-0982 (2013).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhou, Y. et al. Azithromycin therapy during respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis: Upper airway microbiome alterations and subsequent recurrent wheeze. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 138, 1215–1219.e5, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2016.03.054 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Teo, S. M. et al. The infant nasopharyngeal microbiome impacts severity of lower respiratory infection and risk of asthma development. Cell Host Microbe 17, 704–715, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2015.03.008 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Teo, S. M. et al. Airway microbiota dynamics uncover a critical window for interplay of pathogenic bacteria and allergy in childhood respiratory disease. Cell Host Microbe 24, 341–352.e5, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2018.08.005 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beigelman A. et al. Azithromycin to prevent recurrent wheeze following severe respiratory syncytial virus bronchiolitis. NEJM Evid. 1. https://doi.org/10.1056/EVIDoa2100069 (2022).

Matzneller, P. et al. Blood, tissue, and intracellular concentrations of azithromycin during and after end of therapy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 57, 1736–1742, https://doi.org/10.1128/AAC.02011-12 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Porsbjerg, C., Melén, E., Lehtimäki, L. & Shaw, D. Asthma. Lancet 401, 858–873, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(22)02125-0 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McCallum, G. B. et al. A single dose of azithromycin does not improve clinical outcomes of children hospitalised with bronchiolitis: A randomised, placebo-controlled trial. PLoS One 8, e74316, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0074316 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar