1School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

2Johnson and Johnson Vision, Jacksonville, Florida

3Brien Holden Vision Institute, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia

4Department of Ophthalmology, Children's University Hospital, Dublin, Ireland

∗[email protected]

Supplemental Digital Content: Appendix 1, available at https://links.lww.com/OPX/A692: Rank order position of the top ten PISA results of the 35 analyzed countries for mathematics, science, and reading for the years 2000, 2003, 2006, 2009, 2012, 2015, 2018.

Submitted: September 24, 2022Accepted: July 30, 2023

Funding/Support: None of the authors have reported funding/support.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure: The corresponding author (MJ) is currently employed by Johnson and Johnson Vision. The study was conducted and completed when MJ was not yet employed by Johnson and Johnson Vision.The coauthors have reported no financial conflict of interest.

Study Registration Information: No study registration applicable.

Author Contributions and Acknowledgments: Conceptualization: MJ; Data Curation: MJ, TN, JS, KK; Formal Analysis: TN, DIF; Investigation: MJ, KK; Methodology: MJ, TN; Project Administration: MJ; Resources: MJ; Software: DIF; Supervision: MJ; Validation: JS, DIF; Writing – Original Draft: MJ, JS; Writing – Review & Editing: MJ, TN, KK, DIF.

The authors would like to thank Prof. Ian Morgan for his manuscript suggestions.

Supplemental Digital Content: Direct URL links are provided within the text.