World Health O. World health statistics 2021: monitoring health for the SDGs, sustainable development goals, World Health Organization: Geneva, 2021

Fernandez-Friera L, Fuster V, Lopez-Melgar B, Oliva B, Garcia-Ruiz JM, Mendiguren J, et al. Normal LDL-Cholesterol Levels Are Associated With Subclinical Atherosclerosis in the Absence of Risk Factors. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70:2979–91.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Silverman MG, Blaha MJ, Krumholz HM, Budoff MJ, Blankstein R, Sibley CT, et al. Impact of coronary artery calcium on coronary heart disease events in individuals at the extremes of traditional risk factor burden: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Eur Heart J. 2014;35:2232–41.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Whelton SP, McEvoy JW, Shaw L, Psaty BM, Lima JAC, Budoff M, et al. Association of Normal Systolic Blood Pressure Level With Cardiovascular Disease in the Absence of Risk Factors. Jama Cardiol. 2020;5:1011–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Won KB, Park GM, Yang YJ, Ann SH, Kim YG, Yang DH, et al. Independent role of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in subclinical coronary atherosclerosis in the absence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors. Eur Heart J Cardiovasc Imaging. 2019;20:866–72.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zuo Y, Han X, Tian X, Chen S, Wu S, Wang A. Association of Impaired Fasting Glucose With Cardiovascular Disease in the Absence of Risk Factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022;107:e1710–e1718.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zheng R, Xu Y, Li M, Lu J, Wu S, Niu J et al. Examining the Linear Association Between Blood Pressure Levels and Cardiovascular Diseases in the Absence of Major Risk Factors in China. Circ Cardiovasc Qual Outcomes. 2022: 101161CIRCOUTCOMES121008774

Thomas R, Ambookan PV, Jose J, Unnikrishnan UG. The accuracy of anthropometric measurements of general and central obesity for the prediction of impaired glucose tolerance among the adult population of South India. J Family Med Prim Care. 2020;9:3416–20.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hansen L, Netterstrom MK, Johansen NB, Ronn PF, Vistisen D, Husemoen LLN, et al. Metabolically Healthy Obesity and Ischemic Heart Disease: A 10-Year Follow-Up of the Inter99 Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017;102:1934–42.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Matsunaga M, Yatsuya H, Iso H, Li Y, Yamagishi K, Tanabe N, et al. Impact of Body Mass Index on Obesity-Related Cancer and Cardiovascular Disease Mortality; The Japan Collaborative Cohort Study. J Atheroscler Thromb. 2022;29:1547–62.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pasdar Y, Moradi S, Moludi J, Saiedi S, Moradinazar M, Hamzeh B, et al. Waist-to-height ratio is a better discriminator of cardiovascular disease than other anthropometric indicators in Kurdish adults. Sci Rep-UK. 2020;10:16228.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Song X, Jousilahti P, Stehouwer CDA, Soderberg S, Onat A, Laatikainen T, et al. Comparison of various surrogate obesity indicators as predictors of cardiovascular mortality in four European populations. Eur J Clin Nutr. 2013;67:1298–302.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tabary M, Cheraghian B, Mohammadi Z, Rahimi Z, Naderian MR, Danehchin L, et al. Association of anthropometric indices with cardiovascular disease risk factors among adults: a study in Iran. Eur J Cardiovasc Nur. 2021;20:358–66.

Article  Google Scholar 

Wohlfahrt P, Somers VK, Cifkova R, Filipovsky J, Seidlerova J, Krajcoviechova A, et al. Relationship between measures of central and general adiposity with aortic stiffness in the general population. Atherosclerosis. 2014;235:625–31.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Caleyachetty R, Thomas GN, Toulis KA, Mohammed N, Gokhale KM, Balachandran K, et al. Metabolically Healthy Obese and Incident Cardiovascular Disease Events Among 3.5 Million Men and Women. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017;70:1429–37.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Opio J, Croker E, Odongo GS, Attia J, Wynne K, McEvoy M. Metabolically healthy overweight/obesity are associated with increased risk of cardiovascular disease in adults, even in the absence of metabolic risk factors: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Obes Rev. 2020;21:e13127.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Käräjämäki AJ, Korkiakoski A, Hukkanen J, Kesäniemi YA, Ukkola O. Long-term metabolic fate and mortality in obesity without metabolic syndrome. Ann Med. 2022;54:1432–43.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Eckel N, Meidtner K, Kalle-Uhlmann T, Stefan N, Schulze MB. Metabolically healthy obesity and cardiovascular events: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2016;23:956–66.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zheng R, Zhou D, Zhu Y. The long-term prognosis of cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality for metabolically healthy obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2016;70:1024–31.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Radholm K, Chalmers J, Ohkuma T, Peters S, Poulter N, Hamet P, et al. Use of the waist-to-height ratio to predict cardiovascular risk in patients with diabetes: Results from the ADVANCE-ON study. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2018;20:1903–10.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khalili S, Hatami M, Hadaegh F, Sheikholeslami F, Azizi F. Prediction of Cardiovascular Events with Consideration of General and Central Obesity Measures in Diabetic Adults: Results of the 8.4-Year Follow-Up. Metab Syndr Relat D. 2012;10:218–24.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Wang C, Yuan Y, Zheng M, Pan A, Wang M, Zhao M, et al. Association of Age of Onset of Hypertension With Cardiovascular Diseases and Mortality. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2020;75:2921–30.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang X, Feng B, Huang Z, Cai Z, Yu X, Chen Z, et al. Relationship of cumulative exposure to the triglyceride-glucose index with ischemic stroke: a 9-year prospective study in the Kailuan cohort. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2022;21:66.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tian X, Wang P, Chen S, Zhang Y, Zhang X, Xu Q, et al. Association of serum uric acid to lymphocyte ratio, a novel inflammatory biomarker, with risk of stroke: A prospective cohort study. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2023;29:1168–77.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arnett DK, Blumenthal RS, Albert MA, Buroker AB, Goldberger ZD, Hahn EJ, et al. 2019 ACC/AHA Guideline on the Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;74:1376–414.

Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Grundy SM, Stone NJ, Bailey AL, Beam C, Birtcher KK, Blumenthal RS, et al. 2018 AHA/ACC/AACVPR/AAPA/ABC/ACPM/ADA/AGS/APhA/ASPC/NLA/PCNA Guideline on the Management of Blood Cholesterol: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019;73:3168–209.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Goff DC Jr, Lloyd-Jones DM, Bennett G, Coady S, D’Agostino RB, Gibbons R, et al. 2013 ACC/AHA guideline on the assessment of cardiovascular risk: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2014;129:S49–73.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stroke--1989. Recommendations on stroke prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. Report of the WHO Task Force on Stroke and other Cerebrovascular Disorders. Stroke. 1989;20:1407–31.

Article  Google Scholar 

Tunstall-Pedoe H, Kuulasmaa K, Amouyel P, Arveiler D, Rajakangas AM, Pajak A. Myocardial infarction and coronary deaths in the World Health Organization MONICA Project. Registration procedures, event rates, and case-fatality rates in 38 populations from 21 countries in four continents. Circulation. 1994;90:583–612.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhao Y, Qie R, Han M, Huang S, Wu X, Zhang Y, et al. Association of BMI with cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of cohort studies. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2021;31:1976–84.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Iliodromiti S, Celis-Morales CA, Lyall DM, Anderson J, Gray SR, Mackay DF, et al. The impact of confounding on the associations of different adiposity measures with the incidence of cardiovascular disease: a cohort study of 296 535 adults of white European descent. Eur Heart J. 2018;39:1514–20.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bae JC, Cho NH, Kim JH, Hur KY, Jin SM, Lee MK. Association of Body Mass Index with the Risk of Incident Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, and All-Cause Mortality: A Community-Based Prospective Study. Endocrinol Metab (Seoul). 2020;35:416–24.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eckel N, Li Y, Kuxhaus O, Stefan N, Hu FB, Schulze MB. Transition from metabolic healthy to unhealthy phenotypes and association with cardiovascular disease risk across BMI categories in 90 257 women (the Nurses’ Health Study): 30 year follow-up from a prospective cohort study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:714–24.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xue R, Li Q, Geng Y, Wang H, Wang F, Zhang S. Abdominal obesity and risk of CVD: a dose-response meta-analysis of thirty-one prospective studies. Br J Nutr. 2021;126:1420–30.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kruszewska J, Cudnoch-Jedrzejewska A, Czarzasta K. Remodeling and Fibrosis of the Cardiac Muscle in the Course of Obesity-Pathogenesis and Involvement of the Extracellular Matrix. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:4195.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gutierrez-Cuevas J, Sandoval-Rodriguez A, Meza-Rios A, Monroy-Ramirez HC, Galicia-Moreno M, Garcia-Banuelos J, et al. Molecular Mechanisms of Obesity-Linked Cardiac Dysfunction: An Up-Date on Current Knowledge. Cells. 2021;10:629.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rothman KJ, Poole C. A strengthening programme for weak associations. Int J Epidemiol. 1988;17:955–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar