Jager KJ, Kovesdy C, Langham R, Rosenberg M, Jha V, Zoccali C. A single number for advocacy and Com-munication—Worldwide more than 850 million individuals have kidney diseases. Kidney Int. 2019;96(5):1048–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2019.07.012.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Umanath K, Lewis JB, Update on Diabetic Nephropathy: Core Curriculum. 2018. Am J Kidney Dis. 2018;71(6):884–895. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2017.10.026

Duby JJ, Campbell RK, Setter SM, White JR, Rasmussen KA. Diabetic neuropathy: an intensive review. Am J Health Syst Pharm. 2004;61(2):160–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajhp/61.2.160.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wanner C, Inzucchi SE, Lachin JM, et al. Empagliflozin and progression of kidney disease in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2016;375(4):323–34. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1515920.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, et al. Effect of finerenone on chronic kidney disease outcomes in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2020;383(23):2219–29. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2025845.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhang Y, Ding X, Hua B, et al. High Triglyceride-Glucose index is associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes in patients with acute myocardial infarction. Nutr. Metab. Cardi-ovasc. Dis. 2020;30(12):2351–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.numecd.2020.07.041.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lopez-Jaramillo P, Gomez-Arbelaez D, Martinez-Bello D, et al. Association of the triglyceride glucose index as a measure of insulin resistance with mortality and cardiovascular disease in populations from five continents (PURE Study): A Prospective Cohort Study. Lancet Healthy Longev. 2023;4(1):e23–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2666-7568(22)00247-1.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wang H, Chen G, Sun D, Ma Y. The threshold effect of triglyceride glucose index on diabetic kidney disease risk in patients with type 2 diabetes: unveiling a non-linear association. Front Endocrinol. 2024;15:1411486. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1411486.

Article  Google Scholar 

Mu X, Wu A, Hu H, et al. Correlation between alternative insulin resistance indexes and diabetic kidney disease: a retrospective study. Endocrine. 2024;84:136–47. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-023-03574-6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chiu H, Tsai HJ, Huang JC, et al. Associations between Triglycer-ide-Glucose index and Micro- and Macro-Angiopathies in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutrients. 2020;12(2):328. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12020328.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tiongco RE, Cayanan ND, Dominguez MJ, Geonzon K, Mercado JA, Pineda-Cortel MR. High triglyceride-glucose index in patients with diabetes mellitus is associated with an increased likelihood of nephropathy development: evidence from a meta-analysis among Asian population. Egypt J Lntern Med. 2025;37(1):14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s43162-025-00402-3.

Article  Google Scholar 

Huang Y, Zhou Y, Xu Y, et al. Inflammatory markers link triglyceride-glucose index and obesity indicators with adverse cardiovascular events in patients with hypertension: insights from three cohorts. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2025;24(1):11. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-024-02571-x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kurtkulagi O, Aktas G, Taslamacioglu Duman T, Bilgin S, Atak Tel BM, Kahveci G. Correlation between serum triglyceride to HDL cholesterol ratio and blood pressure in patients with primary hypertension. Prec Med Sci. 2022;11(3):100–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/prm2.12080.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bilgin S, Aktas G, Tel BM, et al. Triglyceride to high density lipoprotein cholesterol ratio is elevated in patients with complicated type 2 diabetes mellitus. Acta Fac Med Naissensis. 2022;39(1):66–73. https://doi.org/10.5937/afmnai39-33239.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhao S, Yu S, Chi C, et al. Association between Macro- and Mi-crovascular damage and the triglyceride glucose index in Community-Dwelling elderly individuals: the Northern Shanghai study. Cardiovasc. Diabetol. 2019;18(1):95. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-019-0898-x.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Okamura T, Hashimoto Y, Hamaguchi M, Obora A, Kojima T, Fukui M. Triglyceride–Glucose index is a predictor of incident chronic kidney disease: A Population-Based longitudinal study. Clin Exp Nephrol. 2019;23(7):948–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10157-019-01729-2.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Liu L, Xia R, Song X, et al. Association between the Triglyceride–Glucose index and diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes: A Cross-Sectional study. J Diabetes Investig. 2021;12(4):557–65. https://doi.org/10.1111/jdi.13371.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhu H, Chen Y, Ding D, Chen H. Association between different insulin resistance indices and all-cause mortality in patients with diabetic kidney disease: a prospective cohort study. Front Endocrinol. 2025;15:1427727. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2024.1427727.

Article  Google Scholar 

Deng S, Peng L. Triglyceride glucose index and the risk of diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 diabetes: A Meta-Analysis. Horm Metab Res. 2025;57(02):106–16. https://doi.org/10.1055/a-2376-6044.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Huang J, Liu D, Zeng H, Liu J. Associations between triglyceride-glucose index and risk of diabetic kidney disease progression in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2024;23:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13410-024-01348-y.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tuo J, Li Z, Xie L. Association between triglyceride-glucose index and clinical outcomes among patients with chronic kidney disease: a meta-analysis. BMC Nephrol. 2025;26:61. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12882-025-03984-w.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Oh D, Park SH, Lee S, et al. High Triglyceride-Glucose index with renal hyperfiltration and albuminuria in young adults: the Korea National health and nutrition examination survey (KNHANES V, VI, and VIII). J Clin Med. 2022;11(21):6419. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11216419.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nabipoorashrafi SA, Adeli A, Seyedi SA, et al. Comparison of insulin resistance indices in predicting albuminuria among patients with type 2 diabetes. Eur J Med Res. 2023;28(1):166. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40001-023-01134-2.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wang Z, Qian H, Zhong S, Gu T, Xu M, Yang Q. The relationship between Triglyceride-Glucose index and Al-buminuria in united States adults. Front Endocrinol. 2023;14:1215055. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1215055.

Article  Google Scholar 

Ou YL, Lee MY, Lin IT, Wen WL, Hsu WH, Chen SC. Obesity-Related indices are associated with Al-buminuria and advanced kidney disease in type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ren Fail. 2021;43(1):1250–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886022X.2021.1969247.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ajabnoor GMA, Bahijri SM, Enani SM, et al. Exploring the validity of available markers and indices in the diagnosis of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in people with type 2 diabetes in Saudi Arabia. Diseases. 2023;11(1):10. https://doi.org/10.3390/diseases11010010.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Al Rubeaan K, Siddiqui K, AlGhonaim M, Youssef AM, AlNaqeb D. The Saudi diabetic kidney disease study (Saudi-DKD): clinical characteristics and biochemical parameters. Ann Saudi Med. 2018;38(1):6–56. https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2018.03.01.1010.

Article  Google Scholar 

Metabolic Score for Insulin Resistance (METS-IR). and other non-insulin-based methods - JSCalc.io. https://jscalc.io/calc/F54ikuywK6rcqXEy (accessed 2024-07-09).

Rossing P, Caramori ML, Chan JC, et al. KDIGO 2022 clinical practice guideline for diabetes management in chronic kidney disease. Kidney Int. 2022;102(5):S1–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2022.06.008.

Article  Google Scholar 

Levey AS, Stevens LA, Schmid CH et al. A New Equation to Estimate Glomerular Filtration Rate. 2009.

Diagnosis E. Prevention, and treatment of chronic kidney Disease–Mineral and bone disorder: synopsis of the kidney disease: improving global outcomes 2017 clinical practice guideline update Ann Intern Med. https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/https://doi.org/10.7326/M17-2640 (accessed 2024-06-30).

Bilgin S, Kurtkulagi O, Tel BM, et al. Does C-reactive protein to serum albumin ratio correlate with diabetic nephropathy in patients with type 2 dIabetes mellitus?? The CARE TIME study. Prim Care Diabetes. 2021;15(6):1071–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcd.2021.08.015.

Article  CAS