Nevill AM, Duncan MJ, Lahart IM, Sandercock GR. Scaling waist girth for differences in body size reveals a new improved index associated with cardiometabolic risk. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2017;27(11):1470–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eknoyan G. Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874)--the average man and indices of obesity. Nephrol Dial Transpl. 2008;23(1):47–51.

Article  Google Scholar 

Keys A, Fidanza F, Karvonen MJ, Kimura N, Taylor HL. Indices of relative weight and obesity. Int J Epidemiol. 2014;43(3):655–65.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mariotti S, Capocaccia R, Farchi G, Menotti A, Verdecchia A, Keys A. Differences in the incidence rate of coronary heart disease between north and south European cohorts of the seven countries study as partially explained by risk factors. Eur Heart J. 1982;3(5):481–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Obesity. Preventing and managing the global epidemic. Report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2000;894:i–xii.

Google Scholar 

Clinical Guidelines on the. Identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults–the evidence report. National Institutes of Health. Obes Res. 1998;6(Suppl 2):S51–209.

Google Scholar 

Consultation WHOE. Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies. Lancet. 2004;363(9403):157–63.

Article  Google Scholar 

Misra A. Ethnic-specific criteria for classification of body mass index: a perspective for Asian Indians and American Diabetes Association position statement. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2015;17(9):667–71.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Abdullah A, Peeters A, de Courten M, Stoelwinder J. The magnitude of association between overweight and obesity and the risk of diabetes: a meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2010;89(3):309–19.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Torloni MR, Betran AP, Horta BL, Nakamura MU, Atallah AN, Moron AF, et al. Prepregnancy BMI and the risk of gestational diabetes: a systematic review of the literature with meta-analysis. Obes Rev. 2009;10(2):194–203.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Dis I, Kromhout D, Geleijnse JM, Boer JM, Verschuren WM. Body mass index and waist circumference predict both 10-year nonfatal and fatal cardiovascular disease risk: study conducted in 20,000 Dutch men and women aged 20–65 years. Eur J Cardiovasc Prev Rehabil. 2009;16(6):729–34.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zheng H, Chen C. Body mass index and risk of knee osteoarthritis: systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. BMJ Open. 2015;5(12):e007568.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lopez PP, Stefan B, Schulman CI, Byers PM. Prevalence of sleep apnea in morbidly obese patients who presented for weight loss surgery evaluation: more evidence for routine screening for obstructive sleep apnea before weight loss surgery. Am Surg. 2008;74(9):834–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Young T, Finn L, Peppard PE, Szklo-Coxe M, Austin D, Nieto FJ, et al. Sleep disordered breathing and mortality: eighteen-year follow-up of the Wisconsin sleep cohort. Sleep. 2008;31(8):1071–8.

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Obesity and Cancer National Cancer Institute. 2022 [ https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/causes-prevention/risk/obesity/obesity-fact-sheet

Mongraw-Chaffin ML, Peters SAE, Huxley RR, Woodward M. The sex-specific association between BMI and coronary heart disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of 95 cohorts with 1.2 million participants. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2015;3(6):437–49.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Prospective Studies C, Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, Clarke R, Emberson J, et al. Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet. 2009;373(9669):1083–96.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hsu WC, Araneta MR, Kanaya AM, Chiang JL, Fujimoto W. BMI cut points to identify at-risk Asian Americans for type 2 diabetes screening. Diabetes Care. 2015;38(1):150–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Zhou BF, Cooperative Meta-Analysis Group of the Working Group on Obesity in C. Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference for risk factors of certain related diseases in Chinese adults–study on optimal cut-off points of body mass index and waist circumference in Chinese adults. Biomed Environ Sci. 2002;15(1):83–96.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weir CB, Jan A. BMI classification percentile and cut off points. StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL). 2024.

Liu C, Cheng KY, Tong X, Cheung WH, Chow SK, Law SW, et al. The role of obesity in Sarcopenia and the optimal body composition to prevent against Sarcopenia and obesity. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023;14:1077255.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ. The metabolic syndrome. Lancet. 2005;365(9468):1415–28.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Van Gaal LF, Mertens IL, De Block CE. Mechanisms linking obesity with cardiovascular disease. Nature. 2006;444(7121):875–80.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wolfe RR. The underappreciated role of muscle in health and disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2006;84(3):475–82.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kramer CK, Zinman B, Retnakaran R. Are metabolically healthy overweight and obesity benign conditions? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 2013;159(11):758–69.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ortega FB, Lee DC, Katzmarzyk PT, Ruiz JR, Sui X, Church TS, et al. The intriguing metabolically healthy but obese phenotype: cardiovascular prognosis and role of fitness. Eur Heart J. 2013;34(5):389–97.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gomez-Ambrosi J, Silva C, Galofre JC, Escalada J, Santos S, Millan D, et al. Body mass index classification misses subjects with increased cardiometabolic risk factors related to elevated adiposity. Int J Obes (Lond). 2012;36(2):286–94.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chang SH, Beason TS, Hunleth JM, Colditz GA. A systematic review of body fat distribution and mortality in older people. Maturitas. 2012;72(3):175–91.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG, Lennon L, Whincup PH. Decreased muscle mass and increased central adiposity are independently related to mortality in older men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2007;86(5):1339–46.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Murphy RA, Reinders I, Garcia ME, Eiriksdottir G, Launer LJ, Benediktsson R, et al. Adipose tissue, muscle, and function: potential mediators of associations between body weight and mortality in older adults with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2014;37(12):3213–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Amati F, Pennant M, Azuma K, Dube JJ, Toledo FG, Rossi AP, et al. Lower thigh subcutaneous and higher visceral abdominal adipose tissue content both contribute to insulin resistance. Obes (Silver Spring). 2012;20(5):1115–7.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ross R, Aru J, Freeman J, Hudson R, Janssen I. Abdominal adiposity and insulin resistance in obese men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2002;282(3):E657–63.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Goodpaster BH, Thaete FL, Simoneau JA, Kelley DE. Subcutaneous abdominal fat and thigh muscle composition predict insulin sensitivity independently of visceral fat. Diabetes. 1997;46(10):1579–85.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Goodpaster BH, Krishnaswami S, Harris TB, Katsiaras A, Kritchevsky SB, Simonsick EM, et al. Obesity, regional body fat distribution, and the metabolic syndrome in older men and women. Arch Intern Med. 2005;165(7):777–83.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Despres JP, Lemieux I. Abdominal obesity and metabolic syndrome. Nature. 2006;444(7121):881–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Janssen I, Katzmarzyk PT, Ross R. Waist circumference and not body mass index expla