From the aISARIC, Pandemic Sciences Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom

bDepartment of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom

cWHO Collaborating Centre for Infectious Disease Epidemiology and Control, School of Public Health, Li Ka Shing Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People’s Republic of China.

Submitted October 21, 2023; accepted January 19, 2024

This work was made possible by the UK Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office and Wellcome (215091/Z/18/Z, 222410/Z/21/Z, 225288/Z/22/Z, and 220757/Z/20/Z); the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation (OPP1209135); and the philanthropic support of the donors to the University of Oxford’s COVID-19 Research Response Fund (0009109). This work was also supported by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (grant no. R01 GM139926) and by an RGC Senior Research Fellowship from the University Grants Committee of Hong Kong (grant number: HKU SRFS2021-7S03).

B.J.C. consults for AstraZeneca, Fosun Pharma, GlaxoSmithKline, Moderna, Pfizer, Roche, and Sanofi Pasteur. All other authors have no conflicts to report.

Supplemental digital content is available through direct URL citations in the HTML and PDF versions of this article (www.epidem.com).

Correspondence: Bronner P. Gonçalves, Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7AL, United Kingdom. E-mail: [email protected].