Argente, J. et al. Molecular basis of normal and pathological puberty: from basic mechanisms to clinical implications. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 11, 203–216 (2023).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Avendano, M. S., Vazquez, M. J. & Tena-Sempere, M. Disentangling puberty: novel neuroendocrine pathways and mechanisms for the control of mammalian puberty. Hum. Reprod. Update 23, 737–763 (2017).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Plant, T. M. & Barker-Gibb, M. L. Neurobiological mechanisms of puberty in higher primates. Hum. Reprod. Update 10, 67–77 (2004).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sisk, C. L. & Foster, D. L. The neural basis of puberty and adolescence. Nat. Neurosci. 7, 1040–1047 (2004).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Tena-Sempere, M. The roles of kisspeptins and G protein-coupled receptor-54 in pubertal development. Curr. Opin. Pediatr. 18, 442–447 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kennedy, G. C. & Mitra, J. Body weight and food intake as initiating factors for puberty in the rat. J. Physiol. 166, 408–418 (1963).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Frisch, R. E. Fatness, menarche, and female fertility. Perspect. Biol. Med. 28, 611–633 (1985).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Frisch, R. E. The right weight: body fat, menarche and fertility. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 53, 113–129 (1994).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Schneider, J. E. Energy balance and reproduction. Physiol. Behav. 81, 289–317 (2004).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Kaplowitz, P. Pubertal development in girls: secular trends. Curr. Opin. Obstet. Gynecol. 18, 487–491 (2006).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Biro, F. M. et al. Pubertal assessment method and baseline characteristics in a mixed longitudinal study of girls. Pediatrics 126, e583–e590 (2010).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Herman-Giddens, M. E. et al. Secondary sexual characteristics and menses in young girls seen in office practice: a study from the Pediatric Research in Office Settings network. Pediatrics 99, 505–512 (1997).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Burt Solorzano, C. M. & McCartney, C. R. Obesity and the pubertal transition in girls and boys. Reproduction 140, 399–410 (2010).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Euling, S. Y. et al. Examination of US puberty-timing data from 1940 to 1994 for secular trends: panel findings. Pediatrics 121, S172–S191 (2008).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ahmed, M. L., Ong, K. K. & Dunger, D. B. Childhood obesity and the timing of puberty. Trends Endocrinol. Metab. 20, 237–242 (2009).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Reinehr, T. & Roth, C. L. Is there a causal relationship between obesity and puberty? Lancet Child. Adolesc. Health 3, 44–54 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Day, F. R., Elks, C. E., Murray, A., Ong, K. K. & Perry, J. R. Puberty timing associated with diabetes, cardiovascular disease and also diverse health outcomes in men and women: the UK Biobank study. Sci. Rep. 5, 11208 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Freedman, D. S. et al. The relation of menarcheal age to obesity in childhood and adulthood: the Bogalusa heart study. BMC Pediatr. 3, 3 (2003).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hollis, B. et al. Genomic analysis of male puberty timing highlights shared genetic basis with hair colour and lifespan. Nat. Commun. 11, 1536 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Day, F. R. et al. Genomic analyses identify hundreds of variants associated with age at menarche and support a role for puberty timing in cancer risk. Nat. Genet. 49, 834 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Zhu, J. & Chan, Y. M. Adult consequences of self-limited delayed puberty. Pediatrics 139, e20163177 (2017).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Welt, C. K. et al. Recombinant human leptin in women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. N. Engl. J. Med. 351, 987–997 (2004).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Mountjoy, M. et al. The IOC consensus statement: beyond the Female Athlete Triad–Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (RED-S). Br. J. Sports Med. 48, 491–497 (2014).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Papadimitriou, A. The evolution of the age at menarche from prehistorical to modern times. J. Pediatr. Adolesc. Gynecol. 29, 527–530 (2016).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Piras, G. N. et al. The levelling-off of the secular trend of age at menarche among Italian girls. Heliyon 6, e04222 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Parent, A. S. et al. The timing of normal puberty and the age limits of sexual precocity: variations around the world, secular trends, and changes after migration. Endocr. Rev. 24, 668–693 (2003).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jansen, E. C., Herran, O. F. & Villamor, E. Trends and correlates of age at menarche in Colombia: results from a nationally representative survey. Econ. Hum. Biol. 19, 138–144 (2015).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pereira, A., Corvalan, C., Merino, P. M., Leiva, V. & Mericq, V. Age at pubertal development in a Hispanic-Latina female population: should the definitions be revisited? J. Pediatr. Adolesc. Gynecol. 32, 579–583 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Eckert-Lind, C. et al. Worldwide secular trends in age at pubertal onset assessed by breast development among girls: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatr. 174, e195881 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rosenfield, R. L., Lipton, R. B. & Drum, M. L. Thelarche, pubarche, and menarche attainment in children with normal and elevated body mass index. Pediatrics 123, 84–88 (2009).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jasik, C. B. & Lustig, R. H. Adolescent obesity and puberty: the “perfect storm”. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1135, 265–279 (2008).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Dunger, D. B., Ahmed, M. L. & Ong, K. K. Effects of obesity on growth and puberty. Best. Pract. Res. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 19, 375–390 (2005).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Grabner, G. F., Xie, H., Schweiger, M. & Zechner, R. Lipolysis: cellular mechanisms for lipid mobilization from fat stores. Nat. Metab. 3, 1445–1465 (2021).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hill, J. W. & Elias, C. F. Neuroanatomical framework of the metabolic control of reproduction. Physiol. Rev. 98, 2349–2380 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Evans, M. C., Campbell, R. E. & Anderson, G. M. Physiological regulation of leptin as an integrative signal of reproductive readiness. Curr. Opin. Pharmacol. 67, 102321 (2022).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Casado, M. E., Collado-Perez, R., Frago, L. M. & Barrios, V. Recent advances in the knowledge of the mechanisms of leptin physiology and actions in neurological and metabolic pathologies. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 24, 1422 (2023).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Chehab, F. F., Lim, M. E. & Lu, R. Correction of the sterility defect in homozygous obese female mice by treatment with the human recombinant leptin. Nat. Genet. 12, 318–320 (1996).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Farooqi, I. S. Leptin and the onset of puberty: insights from rodent and human genetics. Semin. Reprod. Med. 20, 139–144 (2002).

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Farooqi, I. S. et al. Effects of recombinant leptin therapy in a child with congenital leptin deficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 879–884 (1999).

Article  PubMed  CAS