Pisetsky, D. S. Pathogenesis of autoimmune disease. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 19, 509–524 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mohan, C., Zhang, T. & Putterman, C. Pathogenic cellular and molecular mediators in lupus nephritis. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 19, 491–508 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Maeda, K. et al. CaMK4 compromises podocyte function in autoimmune and nonautoimmune kidney disease. J. Clin. Invest. 128, 3445–3459 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li, H. et al. IL-23 reshapes kidney resident cell metabolism and promotes local kidney inflammation. J. Clin. Invest. 131, e142428 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tsokos, G. C. Systemic lupus erythematosus. N. Engl. J. Med. 365, 2110–2121 (2011).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Davidson, A. What is damaging the kidney in lupus nephritis? Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 12, 143–153 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tsokos, G. C. Autoimmunity and organ damage in systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat. Immunol. 21, 605–614 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Urbonaviciute, V. et al. Induction of inflammatory and immune responses by HMGB1-nucleosome complexes: implications for the pathogenesis of SLE. J. Exp. Med. 205, 3007–3018 (2008).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Suurmond, J. & Diamond, B. Autoantibodies in systemic autoimmune diseases: specificity and pathogenicity. J. Clin. Invest. 125, 2194–2202 (2015).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vlahakos, D. V. et al. Anti-DNA antibodies form immune deposits at distinct glomerular and vascular sites. Kidney Int. 41, 1690–1700 (1992).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jamaly, S., Rakaee, M., Abdi, R., Tsokos, G. C. & Fenton, K. A. Interplay of immune and kidney resident cells in the formation of tertiary lymphoid structures in lupus nephritis. Autoimmun. Rev. 20, 102980 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sato, Y., Silina, K., van den Broek, M., Hirahara, K. & Yanagita, M. The roles of tertiary lymphoid structures in chronic diseases. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 19, 525–537 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Bavel, C. C., Fenton, K. A., Rekvig, O. P., van der Vlag, J. & Berden, J. H. Glomerular targets of nephritogenic autoantibodies in systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 58, 1892–1899 (2008).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ge, Y. et al. Cgnz1 allele confers kidney resistance to damage preventing progression of immune complex-mediated acute lupus glomerulonephritis. J. Exp. Med. 210, 2387–2401 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vukelic, M., Li, Y. & Kyttaris, V. C. Novel treatments in lupus. Front. Immunol. 9, 2658 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Li, H. & Tsokos, G. C. IL-23/IL-17 axis in inflammatory rheumatic diseases. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 60, 31–45 (2021).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schwartz, N., Goilav, B. & Putterman, C. The pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment of lupus nephritis. Curr. Opin. Rheumatol. 26, 502–509 (2014).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Krausgruber, T. et al. Structural cells are key regulators of organ-specific immune responses. Nature 583, 296–302 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wen, C. P. et al. All-cause mortality attributable to chronic kidney disease: a prospective cohort study based on 462 293 adults in Taiwan. Lancet 371, 2173–2182 (2008).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Akchurin, O. M. & Kaskel, F. Update on inflammation in chronic kidney disease. Blood Purif. 39, 84–92 (2015).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hsieh, C. et al. Predicting outcomes of lupus nephritis with tubulointerstitial inflammation and scarring. Arthritis Care Res. 63, 865–874 (2011).

Article  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez-Iturbe, B., Johnson, R. J. & Herrera-Acosta, J. Tubulointerstitial damage and progression of renal failure. Kidney Int. Suppl. 68, S82–S86 (2005).

Article  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez-Iturbe, B. & Garcia Garcia, G. The role of tubulointerstitial inflammation in the progression of chronic renal failure. Nephron Clin. Pract. 116, c81–88, (2010).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Li, H., Tsokos, M. G. & Tsokos, G. C. Lymphocytes in the neighborhood: good or bad for the kidney? J. Clin. Invest. 132, e160657–, (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kurts, C., Ginhoux, F. & Panzer, U. Kidney dendritic cells: fundamental biology and functional roles in health and disease. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 16, 391–407 (2020).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tang, P. M., Nikolic-Paterson, D. J. & Lan, H. Y. Macrophages: versatile players in renal inflammation and fibrosis. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 15, 144–158 (2019).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Salei, N. et al. The kidney contains ontogenetically distinct dendritic cell and macrophage subtypes throughout development that differ in their inflammatory properties. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 31, 257–278 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Davidson, A. Renal mononuclear phagocytes in lupus nephritis. ACR Open. Rheumatol. 3, 442–450 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Watanabe, S., Alexander, M., Misharin, A. V. & Budinger, G. R. S. The role of macrophages in the resolution of inflammation. J. Clin. Invest. 129, 2619–2628 (2019).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen, T., Cao, Q., Wang, Y. & Harris, D. C. H. M2 macrophages in kidney disease: biology, therapies, and perspectives. Kidney Int. 95, 760–773 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Arazi, A. et al. The immune cell landscape in kidneys of patients with lupus nephritis. Nat. Immunol. 20, 902–914 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rao, D. A., Arazi, A., Wofsy, D. & Diamond, B. Design and application of single-cell RNA sequencing to study kidney immune cells in lupus nephritis. Nat. Rev. Nephrol. 16, 238–250 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Klose, C. S. N. & Artis, D. Innate lymphoid cells control signaling circuits to regulate tissue-specific immunity. Cell Res. 30, 475–491 (2020).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rabb, H. The T cell as a bridge between innate and adaptive immune systems: implications for the kidney. Kidney Int. 61, 1935–1946 (2002).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Shipman, W. D., Dasoveanu, D. C. & Lu, T. T. Tertiary lymphoid organs in systemic autoimmune diseases: pathogenic or protective? F1000Res 6, 196 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chang, A. et al. In situ B cell-mediated immune responses and tubulointerstitial inflammation in human lupus nephritis. J. Immunol. 186, 1849–1860 (2011).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Abraham, R. et al. Specific in situ inflammatory states associate with progression to renal failure in lupus nephritis. J. Clin. Invest. 132, e155350 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Aloisi, F. & Pujol-Borrell, R. Lymphoid neogenesis in chronic inflammatory diseases. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 6, 205–217 (2006).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chen, P. M. et al. Kidney tissue hypoxia dictates T cell-mediated injury in murine lupus nephritis. Sci. Transl. Med. 12, eaay1620 (2020).