In the present study, we found multiple motivations for keeping reptiles as pets among Brazilian keepers, the biggest one being emotional reasons (e.g., like, love, admiration), followed by entertainment and convenience reasons as also dominant/important motivations. Because of the overall misperception that reptiles are easy to keep [8], we expected convenience to be more prevalent than other motivations for keeping pet reptiles, but this was not the case. It seems that affection for animals and the desire to be close to them is the main driver for pet-owning, regardless of the type of pet (i.e., domesticated or exotic species) [29]. Motivations were overall complex and multidimensional, with keepers having more than a single reason for keeping reptiles as pets. This finding is in agreement with other studies that have also shown affection and emotional relations as well as a variety of other motivations for keeping exotic pets [20, 29, 30]. For example, in Portugal, most keepers described affection toward reptiles to explain the acquisition and keeping of reptiles as pets, while convenience, entertainment, companionship, and duty of care were the motivations for long-term keeping [20]. In Greater Jakarta, Indonesia, the motivations for keeping snakes were mainly influenced by seeing close peers keeping snakes, visiting snake exhibitions, social media, or gifts [31]. In Russia, motivations to keep exotic pets were pity (“life-savers” keepers), looking for something different/unusual (“new experience seekers”), acquiring animals based on their specific characteristics (“collectors”), or by chance (“accidental owners”) [30]. In the United Kingdom, the motivations for having a pet reptile vary from media-based interest, wanting a reptile for a status symbol, wanting a pet, wanting a reptile since childhood, and interest in biology or natural history [32]. Differences in terms of the motivations of keeping reptiles or other exotic animals as pets might derive from cultural and social factors that affect the keeper’s knowledge, beliefs, desires, and their relationships with animals in general [29, 33]. Prokop et al. [34] assert that keeping pets results in emotional and cognitive experiences that can be generalized to even less popular animals such as snakes.

Overall, keepers demonstrated positive feelings toward their reptile pets, which might indicate a positive relationship with their animals and suggest a willingness to provide them with proper care, but might not always be related to proper knowledge, and pets may unintentionally be kept with poor husbandry. Even though reptiles were mostly kept by middle- and high-class individuals in terms of income [4], the great majority of Brazilian keepers declared to spend less than or up to US$30 per month in maintaining their reptiles. Besides the initial cost involved in the acquisition of the reptile that can be high depending on the species [4], many reptiles have specific requirements related to feeding and enclosures, resulting in continuous high maintenance costs [8]. Therefore, the low monthly expenses directed to this practice might reflect overall inadequate maintenance. It is important to note that the resources (i.e., money, time, and energy) required for keeping reptiles as pets can vary widely depending on the species, number, size, and lifespan of individuals. For example, snakes can be considered more “budget-friendly” (eating once a week or more), while other reptiles such as large lizards (e.g., tegu lizard, bearded dragon) can be more expensive to maintain, costing as much as a cat or a small dog [35, 36]. In this study, the main reptile group kept as pets were snakes and most keepers maintained only one specimen, which might explain the low monthly expenses found. The unanticipated large amount of money required for proper caring when acquiring an exotic animal (e.g., feeding, environment, specialized veterinary care) might result in animals being inadvertently neglected [30].

Most reptiles were kept alone in terrarium/aquarium enclosures, with basic environmental complexity in terms of physical elements. In the wild, reptiles live in complex physical three-dimensional habitats composed of abiotic (e.g., soil, rocks, temperature, lighting, water features) and biotic components (e.g., different plant and animals species); a temporal dimension (e.g., climate and resource variations in time); and a social dimension (e.g. presence of individuals of the same and different species) [37]. Nonetheless, for reptiles kept in captivity as pets, the need for stimulating and changing environments is often underestimated [38]. Except for some chelonians kept free roaming in gardens, keeping pet reptiles confined in closed enclosures is a common practice all over the world [19, 39]. This is often justified by the necessity of meeting specific temperature, humidity, and UV lighting requirements, as reptiles are ectothermic, relying on external sources of heat to regulate their body temperatures [20]. Specialized equipment such as heaters, heat lamps or pads, humidifiers, or misting systems, besides thermostats, thermometers, and hygrometers are needed to provide the appropriate environmental conditions. However, only 12% of the keepers included a heat/light source and a water/misting feature in their reptile’s enclosure, suggesting potential inadequate environmental comfort. Enclosures commonly found in households might also restrict environmental variation due to their small size, limiting animals’ ability to select between a range of thermal gradients and/or microhabitats along their activity period, resulting in less freedom of choice, less sense of control over their environment, less suitable physical and mental comfort, and poor welfare [40,41,42,43]. Furthermore, not providing the appropriate environmental conditions can lead to health problems, such as respiratory infections or metabolic issues [8, 41, 44].

Adding complexity to an enclosure (physical, social, environmental variation) is a form of environmental enrichment [37], and although it can be limited by the enclosure’s available space, its role is to create instances in which animals can express as many natural behaviors as possible. The presence of different substrates, vegetation cover, and physical structures such as burrows to afford shelter and retreat, rocks, perches, and other features to stimulate movement and exercise, can help individuals to reduce boredom, cope with the forced interaction of humans or other animals, and ultimately to thrive [45]. More complex enclosures result in more natural behaviors being displayed and more positive experiences, resulting in better animal welfare [37, 38]. A proper enclosure complexity should consider the species’ habits (e.g., terrestrial, arboreal, semi-terrestrial) and natural habitat (e.g., humid or arid environment) [8]. For example, terrestrial desert reptiles will benefit from sandy substrates, hiding caves, rocks, and lower branches to climb, relatively higher temperatures, and low humidity. On the other side, an arboreal rainforest reptile will prefer a moisture-retaining soil-based substrate, vertical space using branches and vines, foliage-covered areas, elevated water sources, higher humidity, and an adequate thermogradient. It is also important to consider the specimen characteristics (e.g., age, sex, size, how much it will grow, and social characteristics) to offer suitable space and adequate conditions [37]. For example, space that allows snakes to fully stretch to adopt rectilinear behavior/posture is important to their health and welfare [40]. In addition, while some reptiles may be solitary and be stressed by close proximity to cage mates, others might require higher levels of socialization [13, 46]. Overall, using different types of environmental enrichment (i.e., social, sensory, cognitive/occupational, physical, and nutritional) help to increase positive experiences that lead to a good mental state [47].

Even though enclosures should be functional for the animals, it seems that keepers might be prioritizing their needs over reptiles' needs in terms of facilitating cleaning and the handling of the animal. Indeed, frequent cleaning, as found here, is key to avoiding harmful microorganisms that can jeopardize health, such as bacteria, viruses, and parasites [8]. Nonetheless, we found that most keepers inappropriately handled their animals directly with their hands, which might result in potential threats to human and reptile health and safety (e.g., contagious diseases, accidents, and injuries). Reptiles have the potential of naturally carrying pathogenic organisms and can spread zoonotic diseases, such as salmonellosis, botulism, campylobacteriosis, and leptospirosis by direct contact with the animal or indirect contact with stool-contaminated surfaces or food [48]. Additionally, simple operations such as improper handling can be a strong stressor to reptiles and further contribute to the development of diseases [8]. Good sanitary conditions, safe handling, and proper veterinary care are effective ways to prevent concerns in animal health as well as public health risks. Therefore, besides considering the reptiles’ needs, habits, and characteristics to create environmental complexity and good welfare, keepers should also consider health and safety in their husbandry practices. A balance between good husbandry practices in terms of hygiene and handling and the biological and behavioral needs of reptiles should be maintained to create safe, functional enclosures for both animals and keepers.

Besides inadequate hygiene and handling, other diseases or injuries can result from an improper diet and nutrition. Different reptile species have specific dietary requirements that can be not fully known or complex and difficult to meet in captivity [22]. Usually, the provided diet does not stimulate natural feeding habits/behaviors and is not as balanced and varied as in nature, especially for reptiles with specialized diets. Moreover, the diet or nutritional needs of many reptile species have not been studied and knowledge is limited [49, 50]. Keepers fed lizards and chelonians with a mix of a few hand-raised insect species, and cultivated fruits and vegetables, among others, while in the wild, they can explore a diverse variety of foods [51, 52]. Similarly, snakes were fed mainly by domestic rodents, rabbits, or birds, which are easier to obtain, but in nature, snakes can prey on a wide range of species [52, 53]. Unbalanced diets can result in obesity or malnutrition, while vitamin or mineral deficiencies or overdoses might result in other illnesses such as metabolic bone disease (calcium deficiency), hypovitaminosis A (vitamin A imbalance/deficiency), or kidney disease (water deprivation, high-protein diet, excessive vitamin D supplementation) [52]. Very few keepers mentioned/highlighted supplementing reptiles' diets with vitamins or minerals when asked about their reptile’s diets. Since we did not specifically ask for supplementary vitamins on the diet, we should be cautious to interpret this result and further research should be conducted to better understand diets’ potential deficiencies and their consequences. Finally, qualified reptile veterinarians can be difficult to find, or proper medical care for reptiles can be more expensive (e.g., specialized knowledge, exams, and treatments), which can lead to keepers not seeking or obtaining proper treatment or relying on other non-specialized keepers or breeders to deal with complex health problems, resulting in animal suffering and potentially death. However, as discussed above, health issues and expensive veterinary costs can be avoided by providing pet reptiles a proper husbandry, diet, and environment.