This study showed that vultures have ecological and, importantly, socio-cultural importance for the communities living in northeastern Benin. These communities have also noticed declines in vulture populations.

Local people’s awareness of and familiarity with vultures

Our findings that most respondents reported seeing vultures in the past year highlighted the presence of these birds in our study area [13]. Despite experiencing population declines, vultures still persist in areas where sufficient food resources are available in this part of Benin [13, 29].

Interestingly, notable disparities in vulture sightings were reported between the three protected areas. Respondents living close to the Alibori supérieur forest Forest exhibited greater knowledge of vultures and reported more frequent observations. These differences may potentially be attributable to variations in conservation initiatives and awareness campaigns conducted by local and national organizations dedicated to vulture conservation and protection.

The hooded vulture is the species most frequently encountered in northern Benin, followed by the white-backed vulture. This reflects their relative abundance [30], which is likely due to the proximity of the Pendjari National Park, a well-managed site that evidently serves as a critical sanctuary for these declining vulture populations [31].

Respondents’ level of awareness of vultures was most accurately predicted by the study site and their gender. Individuals residing near Alibori Supérieur were the most familiar with vultures. Additionally, men were more aware of vultures than women. Men frequently shared numerous narratives about vultures, often with considerable enthusiasm. Similar findings were documented in other studies [32]. The allocation of responsibilities is often influenced by traditional gender roles, particularly in rural agro-pastoralist communities [33]. Consequently, men typically spend a significant amount of time outdoors, engaged in activities such as livestock rearing, hunting, and gathering various raw materials [32]. This exposure to the wilderness facilitates encounters with wildlife, thereby enhancing familiarity with and augmenting knowledge about local fauna [33, 34]. From a conservation perspective, elevating awareness among local populations is commendable, as research indicates that limited awareness can lead to the prevalence of misinformation, posing a threat to species, particularly those that have not yet garnered widespread positive public perception, such as vultures [35,36,37].

Benefits derived by local people from having vultures in their localities

Many participants in our study reported benefiting from the presence of vultures. For these people, the most valued service provided by vultures was the efficient removal of carrion, which likely prevents the spread of zoonotic diseases [38]. Vultures were also valued for their role in locating missing cattle. Herders often used cues from vultures to find lost or dead livestock, a phenomenon also observed in southern Africa [39, 40]. The ability to locate carcasses is crucial, as many rural communities in Africa rely on livestock farming. During the dry season, when resources are scarce, cattle often roam unattended over long distances in search of food and water. The behavior of vultures can assist cattle owners in locating their dead cattle, thereby aiding farmers in assessing losses and implementing improved management and monitoring strategies to reduce cattle mortality [41].

The limited recognition of tourism as a benefit of vultures, mentioned by only 3% of respondents, underscores several socio-economic factors in Benin. This finding may reflect a broader pattern observed in other parts of West Africa, where local communities often perceive ecotourism as disconnected from their immediate socio-economic realities or as benefiting external actors more than residents [31]. Unlike countries such as Kenya and South Africa, Benin has not extensively developed ecotourism centered around scavengers and other iconic species. Tourism in Benin primarily focuses on cultural and historical attractions, such as the slave road in Ouidah and the royal palaces in Abomey, with minimal initiatives related to wildlife, which constrains the association of vultures with local economic development [42].

The study indicates that men are more likely than women to acknowledge the role of vultures in carcass disposal and in locating missing livestock. This can be attributed to several socio-economic factors prevalent in Benin. In the rural areas of northern Benin, men typically assume responsibility for livestock rearing and management, whereas women are more engaged in food crop cultivation and trade [43]. Consequently, men are directly impacted by the loss or death of animals and are more attuned to the utility of vultures in such scenarios [41]. Furthermore, individuals actively involved in keeping track of livestock are more likely to observe and appreciate the assistance provided by vultures in locating carcasses or missing animals.

People’s perceptions of vultures and locally shared beliefs about vultures

The study findings indicate a predominantly negative perception of vultures in northeastern Benin, shaped by entrenched cultural beliefs. The strong association of vultures with witchcraft and disease poses challenges for their conservation, fostering mistrust of these birds by local populations.

A segment of the population views vultures as harbingers of misfortune, associating their presence with impending calamity, death, or ominous events. Additionally, some individuals perceive vultures as unhygienic and vectors of disease [44]. These beliefs are deeply ingrained and understandable, given the historical portrayal of vultures in African cinema, where they are often depicted in mystical contexts involving rituals and sacrifices to enhance mystical powers or foresee future events. Such portrayals, including scenes of vultures scavenging on human remains, have contributed to a negative image of vultures among Africans. There is thus an urgent need for awareness programs to address these misconceptions and promote conservation efforts.

Some studies have identified traditional medicine as the primary driver for the killing of vultures, particularly in KwaZulu-Natal province, South Africa [41]. The positive perception of vultures held by some individuals is rooted in their belief that vultures possess valuable properties for traditional medicine and spiritual practices, rather than being solely associated with misfortune [45].

The observed gender differences in perceptions and beliefs about vultures may be explained by the distinct socio-cultural roles assigned to men and women in rural communities of northeastern Benin. Women exhibited significantly more negative perceptions of vultures than men men, which could be linked to their limited involvement in direct interactions with wildlife and fewer opportunities for environmental education or field exposure. In contrast, men, particularly those involved in hunting, herding, or traditional spiritual roles, are more likely to encounter vultures in situ, develop ecological knowledge, or be exposed to belief systems that integrate vulture parts into traditional medicine or spiritual practices [41]. Thus men, who are more involved in traditional medicine practices than women, tended to value vultures more for their medicinal properties, while women were more likely to associate them with bad luck [13].

These gendered patterns may also reflect cultural norms around information access, where men often act as custodians of ritual knowledge and medicinal practices, while women are more concerned with domestic well-being and may associate scavengers like vultures with uncleanliness or danger [13]. Consequently, conservation messaging and community-based initiatives should be sensitive to these gender dynamics, ensuring that women’s perceptions are addressed with culturally appropriate education strategies and that men’s traditional ecological knowledge is constructively integrated into conservation plans.

Sociocultural uses of vulture body parts

Our study highlighted the significant sociocultural value of vulture body parts for spiritual, traditional medicinal, and magical ritual purposes. The body parts of vultures are utilized for various medicinal purposes, such as treating infertility in women, and curing blurred vision, earaches, toothaches, and anemia. They are also used for mystical practices, including attracting wealth, prospering in business, protecting against evil spells, ensuring longevity, bringing good luck, and acquiring supernatural strength or casting spells. These findings were similar to those of McKean et al. [46] in South Africa. Various vulture body parts, including the bones, brain, skull, and feathers, are perceived as essential ingredients in concoctions for healing, clairvoyance, rituals, and magic among traditionalists in Benin. Similar results were found across many African countries [47, 48]. The high value attributed to vulture brains and bones underscores their perceived importance among herbalists, ritualists, and traditional practitioners, particularly for healing purposes. These observations are consistent with those of McKean et al. [46], who found that the brain was the most utilized body part.

The uses of vulture body parts reported by our survey respondents aligned with those from other studies. For example, the skull, bones, and legs of vultures are all used for clairvoyance [49, 50]. The skull is also reportedly used to alleviate headaches and support magical practices [46]. Feathers are believed to provide spiritual protection against adversaries, aligning with findings from Cameroon [51] and Nigeria [47].

The hooded vulture is the most sought-after vulture species for traditional medicine, likely due to its frequent association with human settlements, making it the most accessible species. Its commensalism with people, and subsequent occurrence in human-dominated areas, means that it easily accessible to poachers, and subsequently falls victim to poisoning [44].

Causes of vultures decline and conservation actions

Our survey respondents identified poisoning, both intentional and unintentional, as the primary cause of vulture declines in northeastern Benin. Poisoning is recognized as a global threat to wild birds, particularly scavenging raptors [52, 53], and in this region it is largely driven by belief-based uses [9].

Previous research has highlighted Nigeria and Benin as important hubs for the trade in vulture body parts in West Africa [11, 13]. The hooded vulture is predominantly targeted for this trade in these countries and neighboring regions [11, 39, 54,55,56]. The trade in Benin could exacerbate these declines and push certain species closer to extinction. Thus, implementing conservation actions that help to change people’s perceptions, and which change their behaviour, could have a drastic effect on reducing the trade and the demand for vulture body parts.

The study results underscore the diverse perspectives of people in northern Benin regarding vulture conservation, reflecting an awareness of threats and potential mitigation measures. The most frequently suggested action was to increase public awareness of threats to vultures, aligning with previous studies which emphasized the importance of education and community engagement in conservation efforts [57]. Training people to monitor and protect vulture nests has proven to be an effective conservation measure elsewhere [7, 58]. The introduction of severe penalties for illegal hunting of vultures, supported by 55% of respondents, can be an effective deterrent for illegal activities, making this a critical component in protecting threatened species [59]. Additionally, captive breeding programs, recommended by 60% of our survey respondents, have been successful in other conservation initiatives [60]. The relatively high level of support for captive breeding observed in this study is notable, especially when compared to findings from other regions. For example, [6] reported limited public support for ex-situ conservation among rural communities in southern Africa, where such interventions are often viewed with suspicion or as disconnected from traditional practices. In contrast, studies in parts of India have shown greater acceptance of captive breeding when it is accompanied by strong education and reintroduction programs [2]. The result from northeastern Benin may therefore reflect a unique local openness to conservation innovation possibly influenced by recent awareness campaigns or the proximity to protected areas highlighting the importance of context-specific conservation planning.

We found that young adults, aged 18 to 30, were more likely to support vulture protection than other age groups, suggesting that younger generations can play a pivotal role in conservation efforts, potentially due to greater environmental awareness or higher education levels. Engaging youth in conservation activities, such as citizen science and advocacy, can positively impact local environmental issues [61].

The implementation of vulture conservation actions is shaped by local, regional, and national policy frameworks. Locally, traditional leadership and customary rules can support or hinder efforts depending on community engagement and perceived benefits [7]. Regional coordination between forestry services and local governments is crucial but often limited by resource constraints and overlapping mandates [13]. Nationally, legal tools like the Wildlife and Protected Areas Law and international commitments (e.g., CITES, CMS) provide a foundation for protection, though enforcement remains weak, particularly in remote areas. The lack of specific policies for scavenger species also limits their visibility in national strategies. Enhancing multi-level governance and including local voices in policy planning is essential for the long-term success of vulture conservation in Benin.