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Canada has a long-standing tradition of nuclear research and development that dates to World War II (CNSC 2023), as does our commitment to radiation protection (AECL 1997). The development of nuclear energy in Canada extends from the end of World War II until the operation of our first CANDU power reactor, Douglas Point Nuclear Demonstration Plant, Kincardine, Ontario, commissioned in 1968. From there, full-scale development and operation of CANDU multi-unit nuclear generating stations was undertaken at Pickering (Ontario; commissioned units 1971–1986), Darlington (Ontario; commissioned units 1990–1993), Bruce (Ontario; commissioned units 1970–1987), Gentilly (Quebec; commissioned unit 1983), and Point Lepreau (New Brunswick; commissioned unit 1983). To support the abundance of activity with respect to nuclear power generation, a large workforce was created and mobilized from the 1960s through the 1980s that consisted of skilled trades, scientists, and engineers. Indeed, health physicists and radiation protection technicians were required to keep the workers, public, and environment safe.
As the workforce aged in Canada, it was realized that the knowledge possessed by these original workers might be lost without some level of continuity in personnel; however, nuclear engineers and health physicists were not being produced in significant numbers in Canada. In 2002, the University (rebranded as Ontario Tech University in 2019) was established by law through the Ontario Provincial University of Ontario Institute of Technology Act (UOIT 2002), and through consultation with a stakeholder program advisory committee, an educational program was established to produce the first next generation of nuclear engineers and health physicists in Canada. The Faculty of Energy Systems and Nuclear Science (now the Department of Energy and Nuclear Engineering) grew from two persons in 2003 to about 20 persons by 2023, along with several technical and administrative support staff. In addition to the teaching mission, there is a strong research mission that encompasses a wide variety of nuclear engineering, health physics, and radiation science topics. To address industry needs for the training of highly qualified personnel and cutting-edge industry-focused research, industrial research chairs were established at Ontario Tech University. The NSERC/UNENE Industrial Research Chairs in Health Physics and Environmental Safety were established in 2008 and are funded by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the University Network of Excellence in Nuclear Engineering (UNENE). Nuclear engineering as an educational path will be discussed in the context of this paper, since numerous nuclear engineering undergraduates enter the workforce in health physics and radiation science roles.
The academic program maps for both the nuclear engineering and health physics and radiation science programs are found in Table 1 and Table 2. It is noted that while the engineering program map has been established to satisfy Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB) requirements for an accredited engineering program, the health physics and radiation science program was designed with more flexibility, which needs to satisfy provincial accreditation requirements for university programs. That being said, the core elements of a health physics program are covered in both degrees, namely NUCL2950U Radiation Protection, RADI 3570 U Environmental Effects of Radiation, and a key elective (not listed in the program maps) NUCL4670U Shielding Design. This tryptic of courses forms a comprehensive basis for any health physics or radiation science professional. In addition to the core tryptic courses, the health physics and radiation science program also offers several specialty courses that focus on specific elements of radiation biology, radiation detection, dosimetry, and medical and industrial applications.
Table 1 - Bachelor of Nuclear Engineering program map. Year-Semester Course Course Course Course Course Course 1-1 COMM 1050 UAlong with the teaching mission, the University also has a strong mandate and commitment to research, in part to ensure teaching remains up to date with current trends in the field. There are numerous mechanisms for researchers to obtain funding to conduct research. The main funding agency for researchers and students in science and engineering is the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC). NSERC funds students (termed highly qualified personnel, or HQP) at both the undergraduate and graduate level to work with researchers, and researchers develop budgets to include enough HQP to support the research objectives.
The following sections describe both the teaching objectives and some select research outcomes at Ontario Tech University.
TEACHING UndergraduateThe undergraduate programs in both nuclear engineering and health physics and radiation science have the common courses of radiation protection, environmental effects of radioactivity, and shielding design. The topics included in these three courses are presented in Table 3. The tryptic of courses is designed to provide approximately 10% overlap of core concepts and to introduce new material to the students as they progress through their degree requirements.
Table 3 - Topics covered in three primary health physics courses. NUCL2950 RADI3570 NUCL4950 Radiation Protection Environmental Effects of Radioactivity Shielding Design Introduction to Health Physics Natural radiation Background to radiation shielding Instrumentation Sources of environmental radioactivity Introduction to FORTRAN Concepts of radioactivity Instrumentation for environmental radioactivity measurements Radiation basics Decay kinetics Biological effects Shielding materials Interactions of radiation with matter Nuclear power releases Source terms - Typical Radiation dosimetry Non-power releases Source terms - Space Radon Radioactive waste Interactions Internal dosimetry Decommissioning Dose conversion factors External dosimetry Derived release limits Gamma attenuation procedures with buildup Biological basis Environmental modeling - Atmospheric Neutron attenuation procedures Dose limits Environmental modeling - Terrestrial Albedos, ducts and voids Internal protection Environmental modeling - Aquatic Hard problems in shielding External protection Environmental dose assessment Nuclear reactor shielding NPP considerations Emergency response Advanced techniques Criticality Case studies Case studiesThe radiation protection course is designed to provide students with the knowledge of ionizing radiation interactions and effects, the ability to perform dose calculations, the skills to effectively work around and with ionizing radiation and radioisotope sources, and the ability to determine effective protection strategies for several exposure situations. The radiation protection course material closely follows the structure of the required textbook “Introduction to Health Physics” (Johnson 2017).
The environmental effects course expands on the knowledge gained from the radiation protection course with a focus on radioactivity in the environment, transport of radioactivity from source to receptor, and the effects on human and non-human biota. It incorporates more advanced concepts such as source terms, environmental modeling, environmental dose assessment, and principles of emergency response. A generous number of case studies are provided to emphasize key concepts. In addition, students are introduced to some computer tools, such as Rad Toolbox (ORNL 2003) and Hotspot (LLNL 2014). Students have found that the introduction of a variety of computer tools and online datasets, such as those available from the National Nuclear Data Center (NNDC 2023), have been very beneficial in other courses and when they enter the workforce. The environmental effects course was structured after the text “Radioactivity Releases in the Environment—Impact and Assessment” (Cooper et al. 2003) with updated material from the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP).
The shielding design course builds upon the basic shielding concepts learned in the radiation protection and environmental effects courses and introduces the students to more advanced shielding techniques, allowing them to perform hand calculations related to both gamma and neutron radiation. Since most modern shielding calculations are performed using computer codes, this course provides the students with the ability to independently validate “black box” style computations, with emphasis placed upon understanding how radiation transport and shielding codes work “under the hood.” While the course is focused more on nuclear power, radiation machine, and radioisotope applications, the course also covers aspects of the space radiation environment. As a design course, much of the material has an engineering aspect that considers practical design issues such as shield weight, cost, etc. Of note, due to the importance of the FORTRAN programming language in the nuclear industry, this course introduces the students to FORTRAN (77 and 90) and requires the students to program in FORTRAN. Although there is a lot of initial resistance by many students to FORTRAN programming, experience has demonstrated that many students return years later to inform us of how useful a working knowledge of FORTRAN was when they entered industry. It is worthy to note that as legacy codes are ported to other programming languages or replaced by newly developed deterministic and Monte Carlo codes, other programming languages such as C/C++ and Python may replace the FORTRAN coding component. The shielding design course was structured after the text “Radiation Shielding” (Shultis and Faw 2000).
In addition, the three courses from Table 3 include laboratory components, which are outlined in Table 4. The tryptic of core health physics and radiation science courses employs laboratory exercises that build upon each other through the undergraduate program, with increasingly more complex instrumentation and greater intensity radiation sources. These laboratory courses are essential components to the curricula and provide the students with essential knowledge, skills, and abilities to use a wide selection of field instruments, fixed laboratory instruments, calibration sources, and recording/chain of custody procedures.
Table 4 - Laboratory concepts covered in three primary undergraduate health physics courses. NUCL2950 RADI3570 NUCL4950 Laboratory Radiation Protection Environmental Effects of Radioactivity Shielding Design 1 Operating Characteristics of a Geiger-Müller (GM) Tube Environmental Field Sampling Point Kernel Gamma Shielding I with Microshield 2 Basic Particle Counting Concepts Analysis of Environmental Samples by Gamma Spectroscopy Experimental Gamma Shielding 3 Alpha, Beta and Gamma Interactions Air Sampling and Radon Analysis Point Kernel Gamma Shielding II with Microshield 4 Introduction to Gamma Spectroscopy Environmental Thermoluminescent Dosimetry (TLD) Experimental Neutron Shielding 5 Gamma Spectroscopy II - Calibration and Identification of Unknowns Liquid Scintillation Counting (LSC) of Environmental Samples Experimental X-ray Shielding 6 Introduction to Survey Instruments, Swipes and Practical Field Detection Field Practical ExerciseThe laboratory exercises in the radiation protection course are designed to introduce the student to instructional grade particle counters and spectroscopy systems. The instructional grade radiation detection equipment used in the first five laboratory exercises is from Spectrum Techniques (Oak Ridge, TN). The equipment used for laboratory exercises 1–3 includes ST360 GM tubes with stands, filter sets, and RSS-5 and RSS-8 radioactive source sets. In laboratory 1, the students learn elements of effect of operating voltage on gas-filled GM counters, calculating the efficiency of the GM tube to various sources, and determining resolving time. Laboratory 2 is an extension of the first laboratory exercise where the students explore background determination and counting statistics as well as verify the inverse square law. Laboratory 3 further extends particle counting concepts to explore alpha particle range, beta and gamma particle absorption, and determination of half-life using a Spectrum Techniques Cs-137/Ba-137 m isotope generator kit. Laboratory 4 uses the Spectrum Techniques UCS20 Spectrometer with a 1.5” × 1.5” NaI(Tl) scintillation detector, Ortec (Oak Ridge, TN) NIM bin (with a variety of modules, such as power supply, pre-amp-, amp, etc.) as well as a Tektronix TDS1002 Oscilloscope (Tektronix, North Billerica, MA) and explores concepts such as pulse height as a function of applied voltage, pulse height as a function of energy deposited, and pulse shape analysis. Laboratory 5 explores practical concepts of gamma spectroscopy, such as energy calibration and identification of unknown radioisotopes. Laboratory 6 uses field portable equipment such as the Eberline E-600 survey meter with smart probes (Eberline Instruments, West Columbia, SC), such as the SHP360 (pancake) probe and the SHP380 alpha/beta probe, and the Thermo Scientific FH 40 G-L gamma survey meter (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA). The exercise introduces the students to aspects of field detection such as contamination monitoring, gamma survey, and swipe analysis. Swipe technique is practiced using 1.75” swipes, gloves, baggies, and contamination simulant (for example, fluorescent powder or talcum powder). The final portion of the exercise allows students to practice searching an area for hidden sources and is informally called the “Easter egg hunt.” The laboratory exercises are generally sequenced to align with the lecture material, and each exercise builds upon prior knowledge and skills learned in the course.
The laboratory exercises in the environmental effects course are designed to provide students an opportunity to perform environmental sampling and analysis and use equipment and instruments that they may encounter in industry. As such, the equipment used is like equipment found in nuclear facilities, health physics laboratories, and radiation science industries. The exercises are designed to provide students the knowledge, skills, and abilities to perform effective environmental monitoring for both routine nuclear facility operations and monitoring under accident conditions. Laboratory 1 is a field exercise, involving collection of both terrestrial and aquatic environmental samples. The students work in teams, using an “environmental sampling backpack,” which they load with all the materials and equipment needed to collect a variety of samples. A variety of procedures for sample collection, chain of custody integrity, and sample preservation are provided. Numerous checklists are used to ensure that students follow procedures. Students use compass and GPS navigation and coordinate marking and radio communication protocols. There is a great emphasis on safety when in the field. Students collect samples of stratified soil, top vegetation, and water for analysis in subsequent laboratory exercises. Students also use Eberline E-600 and Thermo FH-40 gamma survey meters, as well as Thermo RadEye G instruments. In addition, students use SAIC (Exploranium) GR-135 (SAIC, Westborough, MA) portable gamma spectrometers.
Laboratory 2 follows from the first laboratory exercise by performing gamma spectroscopy on the samples obtained in Laboratory 1. Students are instructed on how to prepare the samples for use in 1-L Marinelli beakers, and then the samples are analyzed on an HPGe liquid nitrogen cooled detector with and Ortec DSPECjr MCA and Gammavision-32 software. In addition, students also analyze the samples on a 3” × 3” NaI(Tl) detector with an Ortec TRUMP MCA card and Maestro-32 (Maestro, Trenton, NJ) software and compare the spectra obtained.
Laboratory 3 introduces the students to active air sampling techniques as well as radon measurements. Air sampling is performed in the fields around the University using a RADeCO Model H-810 air sampler with filter cartridge and portable generator. Students are instructed about how to make field readings on the filters, and the filters are bagged for subsequent liquid scintillation counting analysis. For the radon portion of the exercise, E-Perm electret ion S-chambers are used. Students receive their radon chambers the week before the laboratory exercise and are encouraged to place them in the basements of their dwellings for a minimum of 48 h (when the time chamber is open and closed must be recorded). The S-chamber readings are analyzed during the laboratory exercise.
Laboratory 4 provides the students an opportunity to calibrate a Harshaw Model 3500 TLD reader using WinREMS software (Harshaw, Oak Ridge, TN) and to perform analysis on “unknown” TLD samples. Prior to the exercise, several TLD-700 (LiF) chips are irradiated to 5 mGy using a Hopewell Cs-137 external beam irradiator (Hopewell, Alpharetta, GA) and are used to determine a single point calibration. The students are then given TLD-700 chips that are irradiated to a variety of absorbed doses unknown to them, and they are asked to determine the doses for the unknowns.
Laboratory 5 provides the students skills for sample preparation and analysis using a liquid scintillation counter. The students use Prosafe+ scintillation cocktail (Turku, Finland), Perkin Elmer Tri-Carb 3180 TR/SL (Perkin Elmer, Hopkinton, MA) and Hidex Triathler liquid scintillation counters (Turku, Finland), and calibration sets consisting of background, H-3 and C-14 standards. In the exercise, students analyze the water samples they have obtained in Laboratory 1, as well as other samples provided (for example, air conditioner water obtained off-site but near our CANDU NPPs will have small yet detectable quantities of H-3).
Laboratory 6 is a cumulative exercise, in the form of an outdoor mock emergency environmental sampling scenario. Students are provided with a scenario and use all the skills they have learned in the prior laboratory exercises. They form into a variety of field sampling teams (air, terrestrial, and water) and set up a field lab using different contamination instruments and a field portable Hidex Triathler LSC. Strict protocols are adhered to with respect to chain of custody, and the students get experience in crossing a clean/dirty boundary. Since safety is imperative, many support personnel (volunteers drawn from faculty member, staff, and graduate student cohorts) participate in overseeing roles. Based upon student evaluations, there is a great amount of enjoyment and satisfaction with this exercise.
The laboratory exercises in the shielding design course are designed to exercise the students in elements of computational photon shielding, as well as gamma, neutron, and x-ray experimental shielding. Laboratory exercises 1 and 3 use the point kernel Microshield computer code. Laboratory 1 is designed to introduce the students to Microshield by performing a number of simple shielding calculations, and in some cases comparison to hand calculations. Laboratory 3 is an extension of Laboratory 1 and provides the students and opportunity to solve more complex shielding problems and to explore more advanced features of Microshield. The experimental laboratory exercises are conducted in our Canadian Nuclear Safety Commissioned licensed Class II facility, which includes numerous access protocols (key card + biometrics), safety interlocks, and last-person-out switch and procedures. Although the main aim of the experimental laboratory exercises pertains to shielding design, other essential safety and procedural considerations when working around larger sources are emphasized. Laboratory 2 allows the student an opportunity to explore gamma shielding using a Hopewell G-10 Cs-137 external beam irradiator. A variety of shielding materials, high-Z (e.g., lead) and low-Z (e.g., paraffin) are used to explore gamma shielding efficacy. A Thermo RadEye G is used in the irradiation facility (“bunker”), and a camera relays real-time images to a control console outside of the bunker. Laboratory 4 allows the students to gain experience with experimental neutron shielding using a Thermo P-385 D-D neutron generator, paraffin and water moderators, a custom-made water filled neutron spectrometer (using a BF3 tube), NaI(Tl) gamma spectroscopy equipment, and a variety of shielding materials including paraffin, lead shot, Borax, and cadmium sheet. The students construct a BF3 pulse height spectrum and identify the proton recoil/triton full energy peaks. In addition, students explore the hydrogen capture peak at 2.22 MeV. Laboratory 5 uses the SAIC RTR-4 x-ray imaging system, which uses a real-time flat panel digital imager and Golden Engineering XR-200 x-ray source (maximum energy 150 kVp). Students explore the effects of exposure time (number of pulses) and shielding materials on image quality for a few items, including personal items that have been brought to x-ray image.
GraduateGraduate programs at Ontario Tech University in the Department of Energy and Nuclear Engineering include Graduate Diplomas (GDips), Master of Engineering (MEng), Master of Applied Science (MASc), and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD).
Graduate diplomas (GDip) consist of four (4) courses in a specific technical area. The current graduate diplomas offered include:
Health physics; Radiological applications; Fuel, materials, and chemistry; Operation and maintenance; Reactor systems; Nuclear design; and Safety, licensing, and regulatory affairs.The length of the program is variable depending upon the students (i.e., work schedules). The graduate diplomas are typically driven by industry demand and as such are not offered on a regular cycle.
The Master of Nuclear Engineering (MEng in Nuclear Engineering) can be taken in one of two fields: (1) Radiological and Health Physics and (2) Nuclear Power. The MEng can be taken as strictly a course-based Masters, with 10 3-credit hour courses or seven 3-credit hour courses plus a small research project. Courses are selected upon consultation with an appropriate faculty advisor, and if there is a research project option, the research project is done under the guidance of a faculty member. In either case, the MEng may be deemed a “terminal masters” insofar as it alone would not satisfy the requirements to move on to a PhD. The length of the program is variable depending upon the students.
The Master of Applied Science (MASc) in Nuclear Engineering has two distinct fields: (1) Radiological and Health Physics and (2) Nuclear Power. The degree requires the student to complete five 3-credit hour courses, a seminar course, and a thesis that must be defended before an examining committee. Students pursuing this degree will be under the supervision of a university researcher approved by the graduate school. The research-based MASc provides the basis for a student to continue to a PhD program if they so desire. The length of the program for full time students is typically 2 y.
The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Nuclear Engineering has two distinct fields: (1) Radiological and Health Physics and (2) Nuclear Power and Energy Applications. The degree requires the student to complete four 3-credit hour courses, a seminar course, a workshop and professional development course, and a thesis that must be defended before an examining committee. In addition, the student is required to pass a candidacy exam 18 mo into the program. The length of the program for full-time students is typically 4 y.
STATISTICS Undergraduate programThe year-over-year program enrollment numbers for the undergraduate programs are provided in Fig. 1. The decline in year-over-year enrollment post-2017 is believed to be due to more industry focus at the time on decommissioning as opposed to new builds, leading to potential high school student uncertainty with respect to career opportunities. With recent announcements of new small modular reactor (SMR) builds in Canada, it is expected that the student enrollment will climb again.
Fig. 1: Undergraduate student enrollment.
In the 20 y that Ontario Tech University has been operating, the total number of graduates from the undergraduate programs is 810, of which 721 (89% of total) are from the nuclear engineering program and 89 (11% of total) are from the health physics and radiation science program. The breakdown of undergraduates by year is given in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2: Undergraduate student graduates.
Gender demographics (undergraduate)Data pertaining to gender is collected by the Office of Institutional Research and Analysis (OIRA) at Ontario Tech University and is obtained via applicant profiles to programs. On average, 14% of students enrolled in the nuclear engineering program identify as women. The value of 14% is well below the desired industrial sector target stated by the Canadian Nuclear Association of “30 by 30,” that is 30% identified women by 2030 (CNA 2023). In the health physics and radiation science program, there are, on average, 44% who identify as women. The percentage of identified women between 2004 and 2022 is provided in Fig. 3. The value of 44% exceeds the desired industrial sector target stated by the Canadian Nuclear Association of “30 by 30,” that is 30% women by 2030 (CNA 2023).
Fig. 3: Undergraduate female student enrollment.
Undergraduate co-op and internshipsAs part of their undergraduate programs, students may participate in work terms in the form of co-ops or internships. Co-ops and internships are paid, full-time roles where the only difference is the length of employment, and they are facilitated with companies employing in fields relevant to nuclear engineering or Health Physics and Radiation Science. Students requesting a co-op or internship require a minimum 2.3 cumulative GPA (out of 4.3) and are typically taken after their third year. A co-op is a 4-mo position and an internship is a back-to-back co-op that is an 8-, 12-, or 16-mo position (prior to fall 2022, Ontario Tech considered a co-op as 4 mo or 8 mo and an internship as 12 or 16 mo). The current definition of co-ops and internships aligns with the Co-operative Education and Work-Integrated Learning Canada (CEWIL Canada) definitions (CEWIL 2023).
Graduate programThe year-over-year program enrollment numbers for the graduate programs are provided in Fig. 4. In may be seen that the year-over-year enrollment was at a plateau from 2012 to 2017, after which it peaked around 2020 and appears to be returning to the plateau level. It is believed that this peak was due to a temporary saturation of new hires in industry, leading to more students gravitating to graduate (primarily MASc) degrees. This saturation was likely due to industry rebalancing hiring objectives to meet the demands of refurbishment of existing reactors, decommissioning needs, and the prospects of embarking on new SMR builds.
Fig. 4: Graduate student enrollment.
In the 15 y that Ontario Tech University has been operating graduate programs, the total number of graduates from the graduate nuclear engineering program is 94, of which 80 (85% of total) have graduated from the MASc program and 14 (15%) have graduated from the PhD program. The breakdown of graduates by year is given in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5: Graduate student graduates.
Gender demographics (graduate)On average, 23% of students enrolled in the nuclear engineering graduate program identify as women. The percentage of women between 2008 and 2022 is provided in Fig. 6. The value of 23% is near the desired industrial sector target stated by the Canadian Nuclear Association of “30 by 30,” which is 30% identified females by 2030 (CNA 2023). Examining the last 5 y of the program, it may be seen that the average is 28% with an upward trend in the data.
Fig. 6: Graduate female student enrollment.
EMPLOYMENTBoth undergraduate and graduate students have had great success in gaining employment post-graduation. While it would not be appropriate or possible to indicate all employers of our graduates, our students have taken the following pathways:
Continuing education (master and PhD) in health physics or nuclear engineering; Continuing education in an allied field (for example, medical physics, medicine, other engineering, education); Employment by a national laboratory (for example, Canadian Nuclear Laboratories, TRIUMF, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, etc.); Employment by the regulator (Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission); Employment by a Canadian government agency (for example, Health Canada, Environment Canada, etc.); Employment by a nuclear utility (for example, Ontario Power Generation, Bruce Power, NB Power); Employment by environmental contracting firms; Employment by nuclear utility support firms; and Employment internationally (for example, International Atomic Energy Agency, Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization, etc.). RESEARCHUniversity research is the cornerstone of graduate (MASc and PhD) education programs. There are several researchers at Ontario Tech that have their primary research area as health physics and radiation science. Their research thrusts are broad, and they encompass areas such as computational health physics, environmental radioactivity and effects, radiation detector development, personal dosimetry, retrospective and emergency dosimetry, space radiation dosimetry, and medical and non-medical imaging techniques. As it is not possible to elaborate all the research projects from all researchers, aspects of research stemming from the NSERC-UNENE Industrial Research Chair (IRC) program in Health Physics and Environmental Safety are considered. The Chair program, which has distinct Senior and Associate parts, is supported both by the Canadian government granting council (NSERC) and the University Network of Excellence in Nuclear Engineering (UNENE) to fulfil, in part, medium to long-term research needs of industry. “UNENE is a network of Canadian universities, industry, government and international institutions dedicated to excellence in nuclear science, technology and engineering” (UNENE 2023).
The UNENE-supported industrial research chairs at Ontario Tech commenced in 2008 and are now in their second 10-y cycle with continuity provided by the current Senior Chair. A significant fraction of the resources and effort of the initial cycle was spent in building infrastructure for radiation research. This infrastructure consists of a purpose-built irradiation facility that contains a Hopewell Designs G10 gamma irradiator, Hopewell Designs Narrow Band Series X-ray generator, and a Thermo-Fisher P385 D-D neutron generator. These irradiation sources have been installed on parallel tracks that enable precision detector positioning as well as the generation of mixed neutron-gamma fields with defined components of each radiation. Complementing these sources is an Am-Be isotopic neutron source designed to be used in research as well as undergraduate experiments and a miniature low energy x-ray generator for eye-lens radiation biolog
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