Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Overdose deaths in 2021 increased half as much as in 2020 - but are still up 15%. 2022. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/pressroom/nchs_press_releases/2022/202205.htm. Accessed 21 Oct 2022.

Rubin R. Surgeon general urges expanded availability of naloxone. JAMA. 2018;319:2068–2068.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Owczarzak J, Weicker N, Urquhart G, Morris M, Park JN, Sherman SG. “We know the streets:” race, place, and the politics of harm reduction. Health Place. 2020;64:102376.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weiner J, Murphy SM, Behrends C. Expanding access to naloxone: a review of distribution strategies. 2019. Available from: https://ldi.upenn.edu/our-work/research-updates/expanding-access-to-naloxone-a-review-of-distribution-strategies/. Accessed 2 Aug 2021.

Naumann RB, Durrance CP, Ranapurwala SI, Austin AE, Proescholdbell S, Childs R, et al. Impact of a community-based naloxone distribution program on opioid overdose death rates. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2019;204:107536.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Walley AY, Xuan Z, Hackman HH, Quinn E, Doe-Simkins M, Sorensen-Alawad A, et al. Opioid overdose rates and implementation of overdose education and nasal naloxone distribution in Massachusetts: interrupted time series analysis. BMJ. 2013;346:f174.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Langham S, Wright A, Kenworthy J, Grieve R, Dunlop WCN. Cost-effectiveness of take-home naloxone for the prevention of overdose fatalities among heroin users in the United Kingdom. Value Health. 2018;21:407–15.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Townsend T, Blostein F, Doan T, Madson-Olson S, Galecki P, Hutton DW. Cost-effectiveness analysis of alternative naloxone distribution strategies: first responder and lay distribution in the United States. Int J Drug Policy. 2020;75:102536.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hayes BT, Favaro J, Davis CS, Gonsalves GS, Beletsky L, Vlahov D, et al. Harm reduction, by mail: the next step in promoting the health of people who use drugs. J Urban Health. 2021;98:532–7.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Byregowda H, Tomko C, Schneider KE, Russell E, Johnson RM, Susukida R, et al. Disruptions to naloxone training among lay and occupational responders in Maryland during the emergence of COVID-19: early impacts, recovery, and lessons learned. Drug Alcohol Depend Rep. 2023;8:100173.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Behrends CN, Gutkind S, Winkelstein E, Wright M, Dolatshahi J, Welch A, et al. Costs of opioid overdose education and naloxone distribution in New York City. Subst Abus. 2022;43:692–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wheeler E, Davidson PJ, Jones TS, Stephen T, Public J, Consulting H, et al. Community-based opioid overdose prevention programs providing naloxone–United States, 2010. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61:101–5.

Google Scholar 

Abouk R, Pacula RL, Powell D. Association between state laws facilitating pharmacy distribution of naloxone and risk of fatal overdose. JAMA Intern Med. 2019;179:805–11.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Abbas B, Marotta PL, Goddard-Eckrich D, Huang D, Schnaidt J, El-Bassel N, et al. Socio-ecological and pharmacy-level factors associated with naloxone stocking at standing-order naloxone pharmacies in New York City. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2021;218:108388.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Graves RL, Andreyeva E, Perrone J, Shofer F, Merchant RM, Meisel ZF. Naloxone availability and pharmacy staff knowledge of standing order for naloxone in Pennsylvania pharmacies. J Addict Med. 2019;13:272–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Guadamuz JS, Alexander GC, Chaudhri T, Trotzky-Sirr R, Qato DM. Availability and cost of naloxone nasal spray at pharmacies in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 2017. JAMA Netw Open. 2019;2:e195388.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cid A, Daskalakis G, Grindrod K, Beazely MA. What is known about community pharmacy-based take-home naloxone programs and program interventions? Scoping Rev Pharm. 2021;9:30.

Google Scholar 

Orgera K, Tolbert J. Key facts about uninsured adults with opioid use disorder. 2019. Available from: https://www.kff.org/uninsured/issue-brief/key-facts-about-uninsured-adults-with-opioid-use-disorder/. Accessed 3 May 2023.

Peet ED, Powell D, Pacula RL. Trends in out-of-pocket costs for naloxone by drug brand and payer in the US, 2010–2018. JAMA Health Forum. 2022;3:E222663.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hoffman J. Over-the-counter narcan could save more lives. But price and stigma are obstacles. The New York Times. 2023. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2023/03/28/health/narcan-otc-price.html. Accessed 1 Sept 2023.

Correal A. Overdose antidote is supposed to be easy to get. It’s not. New York Times. 2018. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/12/nyregion/overdose-antidote-naloxone-investigation-hard-to-buy.html. Accessed 30 Jul 2021.

Treloar C, Rance J, Yates K, Mao L. Trust and people who inject drugs: the perspectives of clients and staff of Needle Syringe Programs. Int J Drug Policy. 2016;27:138–45.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Donovan E, Case P, Bratberg JP, Baird J, Burstein D, Walley AY, et al. Beliefs associated with pharmacy-based naloxone: a qualitative study of pharmacy-based naloxone purchasers and people at risk for opioid overdose. J Urban Health. 2019;96:367–78.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Trinidad JP, Warner M, Bastian BA, Minino AM, Hedegaard H. Using literal text from the death certificate to enhance mortality statistics: characterizing drug involvement in deaths. National Vital Statistics Reports. Hyattsville, MD; 2016. Available from: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/27996933. Accessed 11 May 2019.

New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Naloxone/Narcan at New York City Opioid Overdose Programs. 2018. Available from: https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/basas/naloxone-community-based%20programs.pdf. Accessed 21 Jul 2021.

New York City Department of Health and Mental Hygiene. Naloxone (Narcan) at New York City Opioid Overdose Prevention Programs. 2021. Available from: https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/doh/downloads/pdf/basas/naloxone-list-of-prevention-programs.pdf. Accessed 21 Jul 2021.

Blanchard SK. NYC revamps pharmacies’ role in preventing overdose deaths. Filter. 2021. Available from: https://filtermag.org/nyc-pharmacy-overdose/. Accessed 21 Aug 2021.

Ross CE, Mirowsky J. Neighborhood disadvantage, disorder, and health. J Health Soc Behav. 2001;42:258–76.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Krieger N, Waterman P, Spasojevic J, Li W, Maduro G, van Wye G. Public health monitoring of privilege and deprivation with the index of concentration at the extremes. Am J Public Health. 2016;106:256–63.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Massey D. The prodigal paradigm returns: ecology comes back to sociology. In: Booth A, Crouter A, editors. Does It Take a Village? Community Effects on Children, Adolescents, and Families. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates; 2001. p. 41–8.

Google Scholar 

Millward H, Spinney J, Scott D. Active-transport walking behavior: destinations, durations, distances. J Transp Geogr. 2013;28:101–10.

Article  Google Scholar 

Yang Y, Diez-Roux AV. Walking distance by trip purpose and population subgroups. Am J Prev Med. 2012;43:11–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Waller LA, Gotway CA. Applied spatial statistics for public health data. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley; 2004.

Book  Google Scholar 

Coulton CJ, Korbin J, Chan T, Su M. Mapping residents’ perceptions of neighborhood boundaries: a methodological note. Am J Community Psychol. 2001;29:371–83.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khatri UG, Perrone J. Opioid Use Disorder and COVID-19: crashing of the Crises. J Addict Med. 2020;14:e6–7.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Karahalios A, Baglietto L, Carlin JB, English DR, Simpson JA. A review of the reporting and handling of missing data in cohort studies with repeated assessment of exposure measures. BMC Med Res Methodol. 2012;12:96.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Reed M, Wagner KD, Tran NK, Brady KA, Shinefeld J, Roth A. Prevalence and correlates of carrying naloxone among a community-based sample of opioid-using people who inject drugs. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;73:32–5.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nolen S, Zang X, Chatterjee A, Behrends CN, Green TC, Linas BP, et al. Evaluating equity in community-based naloxone access among racial/ethnic groups in Massachusetts. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2022;241:109668.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chan W. New York’s Narcan vending machine is stopping overdoses. New York Magazine. 2023. Available from: https://www.curbed.com/2023/07/vending-machine-narcan-brownsville-opioid-overdose.html. Accessed 10 Oct 2023.

Hoffman J, Weiland N. Narcan is headed to stores: what you need to know. New York Times. 2023. Available from: https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/30/health/narcan-drug-stores.html1/2https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/30/health/narcan-drug-stores.html. Accessed 10 Oct 2023.

Spadaro A, Agarwal AK, Sangha HK, Perrone J, Delgado MK, Lowenstein M. Motivation to Carry Naloxone: a Qualitative Analysis of Emergency Department Patients. Am J Health Promot. 2023;37:200–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bessen S, Metcalf SA, Saunders EC, Moore SK, Meier A, McLeman B, et al. Barriers to naloxone use and acceptance among opioid users, first responders, and emergency department providers in New Hampshire, USA. Int J Drug Policy. 2019;74:144–51.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yi G, Dayton L, Uzzi M, Browne K, Konstantopoulos A, Latkin C. Spatial and neighborhood-level correlates of lay naloxone reversal events and service availability. Int J Drug Policy. 2022;106:103739.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar