The gastrointestinal mucosa becomes injured when exposed to acid at a high enough concentration for an extended period, which is the hallmark of peptic ulcer disease (PUD) (Malik et al., 2023). The most common types are gastric and duodenal ulcers, which are defined by a breakdown of the mucosa lining the stomach, duodenum, and, in certain situations, the lower portion of the esophagus (Tadesse et al., 2022).

The estimated worldwide prevalence of PUD is 8.4% (Salari et al., 2022), with Western countries reporting an annual incidence of 0.1%–0.3% (Xie et al., 2022). It is recognized that an imbalance between aggressive and defensive forces in the stomach mucosa causes ulceration, even though the genesis of this disease is complex and multi-causal. Helicobacter pylori infection, age, smoking, alcohol consumption, socioeconomic, environmental, and psychological factors, as well as long-term use of NSAIDs, have all been identified as potential triggers in this scenario (Yim et al., 2021). Conversely, protective factors that may be involved include the mucus-bicarbonate barrier, mucin secretion, cell renewal, nitric oxide, mucosal blood flow, prostaglandins, and antioxidant enzymes (Ugwah et al., 2019; De Cassia Dos Santos et al., 2019; Kuna et al., 2019).

Proton pump inhibitors and type 2 histamine receptor antagonists are currently the main treatments used for PUD. Broad-spectrum antibiotics are additionally utilized when H. pylori is found (Ruiz-Hurtado et al., 2021). However, prolonged use of antisecretory therapies can have unfavorable side effects, such as hypergastrinemia and gastric hypochlorhydria, which can negatively impact the absorption of calcium, iron, magnesium, and vitamin B12 and put patients at risk for infection (Espinoza, 2011; Lam et al., 2013; Martins and Bonatto, 2014; Haenisch et al., 2015; Kavitt et al., 2019). Moreover, within 5 years of the beginning, 30.9% of patients with peptic ulcers are predicted to have another episode (Alsinnari et al., 2022). As a result, the desire for novel medicinal compounds has gotten more intense in recent years, with natural products seen as a particularly promising source (Newman and Cragg, 2016; Ardalani et al., 2020; Ruiz-Hurtado et al., 2021).

According to Honório et al. (2016), Zevallos-Pollito and Tomazello-Filho (2010), Uncaria tomentosa Willd. DC. (Rubiaceae) is a species that can be found in tropical forests in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Guatemala, Guyana, French Guiana, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. The plant is known by a variety of common names in these areas, including “uña de gato,” “garabato,” “samento,” “paotati-mosha,” or “minsho-mentis” (Obregón-Vilches, 1997).

This plant is used by a few ethnic groups in the Peruvian Amazon, such as the Ashaninka, Aguaruna, Huambisa, Jivaro, Shipibo-Conibo, Bora, Mashiguenga, Campa, and Piro, to treat a variety of illnesses. Ashaninka healers, for instance, use U. tomentosa for its antiviral, antihypertensive, and anticancer properties; the effects of the plant vary depending on which part is used. For example, preparations of the bark are used for contraception, rheumatic diseases, inflammation of the prostate, female discharges, respiratory, inflammation of the prostate, and digestive tract diseases (Bride and Francis, 1936; Silva et al., 1998; Lock et al., 2016). Furthermore, traditional indigenous tribes in the Amazon region use the species to treat a variety of illnesses and conditions, such as gonorrhea, asthma, arthritis, diabetes, inflammation of the genitourinary tract, irregular menstrual cycles, viral infections, benign and malignant tumors, and gastric disorders (Steinberg, 1995; Obregón-Vilches, 1997; Pavei et al., 2010). Additionally, there are accounts of these indigenous communities using the decoction of the plant's stem bark to cure stomach ulcers (Jones, 1995; Laus et al., 1997). In fact, traditional Amazonian tribes employ preparations made from U. tomentosa to cure gastritis and stomach ulcers, according to Obregón-Vilches (1997).

According to earlier research, U. tomentosa possesses immunostimulant, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties (Allen-Hall et al., 2007). More recently, data suggests that this plant may have potential benefits for preserving glucose homeostasis, decreasing hepatic steatosis, treating cancer (Zari et al., 2021), and treating severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS-CoV-2) (Yepes-Pérez et al., 2022). It is thought that U. tomentosa's chemical components, including flavonoids, polyphenols, triterpenoid glycosides, oxindole and indole alkaloids, and each one alone or in combination, contribute to the plant's medicinal qualities (Heitzman et al., 2005).

Nevertheless, this species' potential as an anti-ulcer agent has not yet been explored, even though its constituents have bioactive properties, and it is widely used. In this regard, we aimed to replicate the customary application of U. tomentosa by assessing the in vivo gastroprotective and gastric healing properties of an aqueous extract of the plant's bark and by learning about the pharmacological pathways that underlie these biological actions.