Aravalli RN, Peterson PK et al (2007) Toll-like receptors in defense and damage of the central nervous system. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2:297–312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11481-007-9071-5

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bradford PG, Awad AB (2010) Modulation of signal transduction in cancer cells by phytosterols. Biofactors 36:241–247. https://doi.org/10.1002/biof.97

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Chang S, Li X et al (2022) Kaempferol exerts a neuroprotective effect to reduce neuropathic pain through TLR4/NF-ĸB signaling pathway. Phytother Res 36:1678–1691. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7396

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Cheng S, Zhang Y et al (2021) LncRNA HOTAIR participates in microglia activation and inflammatory factor release by regulating the ubiquitination of MYD88 in traumatic brain injury. J Mol Neurosci 71:169–177. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12031-020-01623-7

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Donnelly CR, Andriessen AS et al (2020) Central nervous system targets: glial cell mechanisms in chronic pain. Neurotherapeutics 17:846–860. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-020-00905-7

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gogoleva VS, Drutskaya MS et al (2019) The role of microglia in the homeostasis of the central nervous system and neuroinflammation. Mol Biol 53:790–798. https://doi.org/10.1134/s0026898419050057

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Hu Y, Liu Q et al (2019) MicroRNA-362–3p attenuates motor deficit following spinal cord injury via targeting paired box gene 2. J Integr Neurosci 18:57–64. https://doi.org/10.31083/j.jin.2019.01.12

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jayaraman S, Devarajan N et al (2021) β-sitosterol circumvents obesity induced inflammation and insulin resistance by down-regulating IKKβ/NF-κB and JNK signaling pathway in adipocytes of type 2 diabetic rats. Molecules 26:2101. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26072101

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Jin X, Liu MY et al (2019) Baicalin mitigates cognitive impairment and protects neurons from microglia-mediated neuroinflammation via suppressing NLRP 3 inflammasomes and TLR 4/NF-κB signaling pathway. CNS Neurosci Ther 25:575–590. https://doi.org/10.1111/cns.13086

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Jin J, Guo J et al (2020) M2-like microglia polarization attenuates neuropathic pain associated with Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 76:1255–1265. https://doi.org/10.3233/jad-200099

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Jones PJH, Shamloo M et al (2018) Progress and perspectives in plant sterol and plant stanol research. Nutr Rev 76:725–746. https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy032

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kawai T, Akira S (2007) Signaling to NF-κB by toll-like receptors. Trends Mol Med 13:460–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molmed.2007.09.002

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Kim KA, Lee IA et al (2014) β-Sitosterol attenuates high-fat diet-induced intestinal inflammation in mice by inhibiting the binding of lipopolysaccharide to toll-like receptor 4 in the NF-κB pathway. Mol Nutr Food Res 58:963–972. https://doi.org/10.1002/mnfr.201300433

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lan X, Han X et al (2017) Modulators of microglial activation and polarization after intracerebral haemorrhage. Nat Rev Neurol 13:420–433. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2017.69

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lehnardt S, Lachance C et al (2002) The toll-like receptor TLR4 is necessary for lipopolysaccharide-induced oligodendrocyte injury in the CNS. J Neurosci 22:2478–2486. https://doi.org/10.1523/jneurosci.22-07-02478.2002

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Li C, Chen T et al (2018) Schisantherin A attenuates neuroinflammation in activated microglia: role of Nrf2 activation through ERK phosphorylation. Cell Physiol Biochem 47:1769–1784. https://doi.org/10.1159/000491059

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Li X, Wu G et al (2020) Oleanolic acid administration alleviates neuropathic pain after a peripheral nerve injury by regulating microglia polarization-mediated neuroinflammation. RSC Adv 10:12920–12928. https://doi.org/10.1039/C9RA10388K

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Liu R, Hao D et al (2019) β-Sitosterol modulates macrophage polarization and attenuates rheumatoid inflammation in mice. Pharm Biol 57:161–168. https://doi.org/10.1080/13880209.2019.1577461

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lu Y-C, Yeh W-C et al (2008) LPS/TLR4 signal transduction pathway. Cytokine 42:145–151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cyto.2008.01.006

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Moreau RA, Whitaker BD et al (2002) Phytosterols, phytostanols, and their conjugates in foods: structural diversity, quantitative analysis, and health-promoting uses. Prog Lipid Res 41:457–500. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0163-7827(02)00006-1

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Nayak D, Roth TL et al (2014) Microglia development and function. Ann Rev Immunol 32:367–402. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-032713-120240

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Nazeam JA, El-Hefnawy HM et al (2018) Chemical profile and antihyperlipidemic effect of Portulaca oleracea L. seeds in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Nat Prod Res 32:1484–1488. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2017.1353507

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Orihuela R, McPherson CA et al (2016) Microglial M1/M2 polarization and metabolic states. Br J Pharmacol 173:649–665. https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.13139

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ostlund RE Jr (2004) Phytosterols and cholesterol metabolism. Curr Opin Lipidol 15:37–41. https://doi.org/10.1097/00041433-200402000-00008

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Pinho-Ribeiro FA, Verri WA et al (2017) Nociceptor sensory neuron–immune interactions in pain and inflammation. Trends Immunol 38:5–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2016.10.001

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Qie S, Ran Y et al (2020) Candesartan modulates microglia activation and polarization via NF-κB signaling pathway. Int J Immunopathol Pharmacol 34:2058738420974900. https://doi.org/10.1177/2058738420974900

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ransohoff RM (2016) A polarizing question: do M1 and M2 microglia exist? Nat Neurosci 19:987–991. https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.4338

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Reinicke M, Leyh J et al (2021) Plant sterol-poor diet is associated with pro-inflammatory lipid mediators in the murine brain. Int J Mol Sci 22:13207. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms222413207

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Ren K, Dubner R (2010) Interactions between the immune and nervous systems in pain. Nat Med 16:1267–1276. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.2234

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Shigemoto-Mogami Y, Sato K (2021) Central nervous system developmental regulation of microglia via cytokines and chemokines. Yakugaku Zasshi 141:359–368. https://doi.org/10.1248/yakushi.20-00198-4

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sillerud LO, Yang Y et al (2020) Longitudinal monitoring of microglial/macrophage activation in ischemic rat brain using Iba-1-specific nanoparticle-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 40:S117–S133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271678x20953913

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Skaper SD, Facci L et al (2017) Neuroinflammation, mast cells, and glia: dangerous liaisons. Neuroscientist 23:478–498. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858416687249

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sommer C, Leinders M et al (2018) Inflammation in the pathophysiology of neuropathic pain. Pain 159:595–602. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000001122

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Stemkowski PL, Smith PA (2012) Sensory neurons, ion channels, inflammation and the onset of neuropathic pain. Can J Neurol Sci 39:416–435. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0317167100013937

Article