Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Prevention and Management of Avalanche and Nonavalanche Snow Burial Accidents: 2024 Update

10 years of avalanche rescues in the United States, 2003/04 to 2012/13.

Avalanche Rev. 33: 22-24Brugger H. Durrer B. Elsensohn F. Paal P. Strapazzon G. Winterberger E. et al.

Resuscitation of avalanche victims: evidence-based guidelines of the international commission for mountain emergency medicine (ICAR MEDCOM): intended for physicians and other advanced life support personnel.

Resuscitation. 84: 539-546Haegeli P. Falk M. Brugger H. Etter H.J. Boyd J.

Comparison of avalanche survival patterns in Canada and Switzerland.

CMAJ. 183: 789-795Brugger H. Etter H.J. Zweifel B. Mair P. Hohlrieder M. Ellerton J. et al.

The impact of avalanche rescue devices on survival.

Resuscitation. 75: 476-483International Commission for Alpine Rescue

20160115-AVA deadly avalanche accidents statistic 1983-2015.

Oshiro K. Tanioka Y. Schweizer J. Zafren K. Brugger H. Paal P.

Prevention of hypothermia in the aftermath of natural disasters in areas at risk of avalanches, earthquakes, tsunamis and floods.

Int J Environ Res Public Health. 19: 1098Niemann D. Paul S. Rahman H.H.

Avalanche preparedness and accident analysis among backcountry skier, sidecountry, and snowmobile fatalities in the United States: 2009 to 2019.

Wilderness Environ Med. 33: 197-203

Non-avalanche-related snow immersion deaths: tree well and deep snow immersion asphyxiation.

Wilderness Environ Med. 21: 257-261Van Tilburg C. Grissom C.K. Zafren K. McIntosh S. Radwin M.I. Paal P. et al.

Wilderness Medical Society Practice Guidelines for prevention and management of avalanche and nonavalanche snow burial accidents.

Wilderness Environ Med. 28: 23-42Diekemper R.L. Patel S. Mette S.A. Ornelas J. Ouellette D.R. Casey K.R.

Making the GRADE: CHEST updates its methodology.

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Mountain Emergency Medicine.

1st ed. Edra Publishing, Sheets A. Wang D. Logan S. Atkins D.

Causes of death among avalanche fatalities in Colorado: a 21-year review.

Wilderness Environ Med. 29: 325-329Brugger H. Durrer B. Adler-Kastner L. Falk M. Tschirky F.

Field management of avalanche victims.

Resuscitation. 51: 7-15Boyd J. Haegeli P. Abu-Laban R.B. Shuster M. Butt J.C.

Patterns of death among avalanche fatalities: a 21-year review.

CMAJ. 180: 507-512Brugger H. Etter H.J. Boyd J. Falk M.

Causes of death from avalanche.

Wilderness Environ Med. 20: 93-96Hohlrieder M. Brugger H. Schubert H.M. Pavlic M. Ellerton J. Mair P.

Pattern and severity of injury in avalanche victims.

High Alt Med Biol. 8: 56-61Stalsberg H. Albretsen C. Gilbert M. Kearney M. Moestue E. Nordrum I. et al.

Mechanism of death in avalanche victims.

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Avalanche trauma.

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Differential diagnosis of circulatory failure in hypothermic avalanche victims: retrospective analysis of 32 avalanche accidents [in German].

Praxis (Bern 1994). 85: 1275-1282McIntosh S.E. Grissom C.K. Olivares C.R. Kim H.S. Tremper B.

Cause of death in avalanche fatalities.

Wilderness Environ Med. 18: 293-297Falk M. Brugger H. Adler-Kastner L.

Avalanche survival chances.

Nature. 368: 21Haegeli P. Falk M. Procter E. Zweifel B. Jarry F. Logan S. et al.

The effectiveness of avalanche airbags.

Resuscitation. 85: 1197-1203Lott C. Truhlář A. Alfonzo A. Barelli A. González-Salvado V. Hinkelbein J. et al.

European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: cardiac arrest in special circumstances.

Resuscitation. 161: 152-219Procter E. Strapazzon G. Dal Cappello T. Zweifel B. Würtele A. Renner A. et al.

Burial duration, depth and air pocket explain avalanche survival patterns in Austria and Switzerland.

Resuscitation. 105: 173-176Boué Y. Payen J.F. Brun J. Thomas S. Levrat A. Blancher M. et al.

Survival after avalanche-induced cardiac arrest.

Resuscitation. 85: 1192-1196Kornhall D.K. Logan S. Dolven T.

Body positioning of buried avalanche victims.

Wilderness Environ Med. 27: 321-325Grasegger K. Strapazzon G. Procter E. Brugger H. Soteras I.

Avalanche survival after rescue with the RECCO rescue system: a case report.

Wilderness Environ Med. 27: 282-286Brown D.J. Brugger H. Boyd J. Paal P.

Accidental hypothermia.

N Engl J Med. 367: 1930-1938Brugger H. Durrer B. International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine

On-site treatment of avalanche victims ICAR-MEDCOM-recommendation.

High Alt Med Biol. 3: 421-425Strapazzon G. Paal P. Schweizer J. Falk M. Reuter B. Schenk K. et al.

Effects of snow properties on humans breathing into an artificial air pocket - an experimental field study.

Sci Rep. 717675Paal P. Strapazzon G. Braun P. Ellmauer P.P. Schroeder D.C. Sumann G. et al.

Factors affecting survival from avalanche burial--a randomised prospective porcine pilot study.

Resuscitation. 84: 239-243Brugger H. Sumann G. Meister R. Adler-Kastner L. Mair P. Gunga H.C. et al.

Hypoxia and hypercapnia during respiration into an artificial air pocket in snow: implications for avalanche survival.

Resuscitation. 58: 81-88Strapazzon G. Gatterer H. Falla M. Dal Cappello T. Malacrida S. Turner R. et al.

Hypoxia and hypercapnia effects on cerebral oxygen saturation in avalanche burial: a pilot human experimental study.

Resuscitation. 158: 175-182Grissom C.K. Radwin M.I. Harmston C.H. Hirshberg E.L. Crowley T.J.

Respiration during snow burial using an artificial air pocket.

JAMA. 283: 2266-2271Roubík K. Sieger L. Sykora K.

Work of breathing into snow in the presence versus absence of an artificial air pocket affects hypoxia and hypercapnia of a victim covered with avalanche snow: a randomized double blind crossover study.

PLoS One. 10e0144332Grissom C.K. Radwin M.I. Harmston C.H.

Improving survival during snow burial in avalanches.

JAMA. 284: 1242-1243Grissom C.K. Radwin M.I. Scholand M.B. Harmston C.H. Muetterties M.C. Bywater T.J.

Hypercapnia increases core temperature cooling rate during snow burial.

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Full recovery of an avalanche victim with profound hypothermia and prolonged cardiac arrest treated by extracorporeal re-warming.

Resuscitation. 76: 474-480Strapazzon G. Beikircher W. Procter E. Brugger H.

Electrical heart activity recorded during prolonged avalanche burial.

Circulation. 125: 646-647Strapazzon G. Schweizer J. Chiambretti I. Brodmann Maeder M. Brugger H. Zafren K.

Effects of climate change on avalanche accidents and survival.

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Pulmonary edema after complete avalanche burial.

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Negative pressure pulmonary oedema with haemorrhage after 5-minute avalanche burial.

Lancet. 388: 2321-2322Strapazzon G. Nardin M. Zanon P. Kaufmann M. Kritzinger M. Brugger H.

Respiratory failure and spontaneous hypoglycemia during noninvasive rewarming from 24.7 degrees C (76.5 degrees F) core body temperature after prolonged avalanche burial.

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A rare cause of pulmonary oedema: buried under an avalanche.

Br J Hosp Med (Lond). 81: 1

The pathogenesis of pulmonary edema after being buried by an avalanche [in German].

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Avalanche survival strategies for different parts of a flowing avalanche.

Proceedings Whistler 2008 International Snow Science Workshop. : 73-79Hohlrieder M. Eschertzhuber S. Schubert H. Zinnecker R. Mair P.

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High Alt Med Biol. 5: 349-354

Segregation, recirculation and deposition of coarse particles near two-dimensional avalanche fronts.

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Wilderness mass casualty incident (MCI): rescue chain after avalanche at Everest Base Camp (EBC) in 2015.

Wilderness Environ Med. 29: 401-410Pasquier M. Hugli O. Kottmann A. Techel F.

Avalanche accidents causing fatalities: are they any different in the summer?.

High Alt Med Biol. 18: 67-72Johnson S.M. Johnson A.C. Barton R.G.

Avalanche trauma and closed head injury: adding insult to injury.

Wilderness Environ Med. 12: 244-247Kern M.B. Buser O. Peinke J. Siefert M. Vulliet L.

Stochastic analysis of single particle segregational dynamics.

Physics Letters A. 336: 428-433Boyd J. Brugger H. Shuster M.

Prognostic factors in avalanche resuscitation: a systematic review.

Resuscitation. 81: 645-652Bogle L.B. Boyd J.J. McLaughlin K.A.

Triaging multiple victims in an avalanche setting: the Avalanche Survival Optimizing Rescue Triage algorithmic approach.

Wilderness Environ Med. 21: 28-34Strapazzon G. Putzer G. Dal Cappello T. Falla M. Braun P. Falk M. et al.

Effects of hypothermia, hypoxia, and hypercapnia on brain oxygenation and hemodynamic parameters during simulated avalanche burial: a porcine study.

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Hypothermic cardiac arrest with full neurologic recovery after approximately nine hours of cardiopulmonary resuscitation: management and possible complications.

Ann Emerg Med. 73: 52-57Procter E. Strapazzon G. Dal Cappello T. Castlunger L. Staffler H.P. Brugger H.

Adherence of backcountry winter recreationists to avalanche prevention and safety practices in northern Italy.

Scand J Med Sci Sports. 24: 823-829Dow J. Giesbrecht G.G. Danzl D.F. Brugger H. Sagalyn E.B. Walpoth B. et al.

Wilderness Medical Society clinical practice guidelines for the out-of-hospital evaluation and treatment of accidental hypothermia: 2019 update.

Wilderness Environ Med. 30: S47-S69Brugger H. Bouzat P. Pasquier M. Mair P. Fieler J. Darocha T. et al.

Cut-off values of serum potassium and core temperature at hospital admission for extracorporeal rewarming of avalanche victims in cardiac arrest: a retrospective multi-centre study.

Resuscitation. 139: 222-229Musi M.E. Sheets A. Zafren K. Brugger H. Paal P. Hölzl N. et al.

Clinical staging of accidental hypothermia: the Revised Swiss System: recommendation of the International Commission for Mountain Emergency Medicine (ICAR MedCom).

Resuscitation. 162: 182-187Grissom C.K. McAlpine J.C. Harmston C.H. Radwin M.I. Giesbrecht G.G. Scholand M.B. et al.

Hypercapnia effect on core cooling and shivering threshold during snow burial.

Aviat Space Environ Med. 79: 735-742Putzer G. Schmid S. Braun P. Brugger H. Paal P.

Cooling of six centigrades in an hour during avalanche burial.

Resuscitation. 81: 1043-1044Mittermair C. Foidl E. Wallner B. Brugger H. Paal P.

Extreme cooling rates in avalanche victims: case report and narrative review.

High Alt Med Biol. 22: 235-240Léonard C. Charriau-Perret A. Debaty G. Belle L. Ricard C. Sanchez C. et al.

Survivors of avalanche accidents: posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms and quality of life: a multicentre study.

Scand J Trauma Resusc Emerg Med. 29: 96Daniel N. Weinberg N. Carus F. Church B. Zafren K.

Witnessed cardiac arrest in a hypothermic avalanche victim completely buried for 2 hours.

Wilderness Environ Med. 32: 92-97Grissom C.K. Harmston C.H. McAlpine J.C. Radwin M.I. Ellington B. Hirshberg E.L. et al.

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Decision-making in avalanche terrain–how does assessment of terrain, reading of avalanche forecast and environmental observations differ by skiers’ skill level?.

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Avalanche Essentials: A Step-by-Step System for Safety and Survival.

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NivoTest: a pocket tool for avalanche risk assessing.

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Avaluator V2.0 - Avalanche Accident Prevention Card.

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Avalanche decision-making frameworks: factors and methods used by experts.

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Evaluating the Avaluator - first reflections on the Canadian decision aid.

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An evaluation of rule-based decision tools for travel in avalanche terrain.

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Rethinking the heuristic traps paradigm in avalanche education: past, present and future.

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How effective are avalanche airbags? Field tests of avalanche safety equipment.

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Should airbag backpacks be standard avalanche safety equipment?.

Wilderness Environ Med. 32: 495-498Hagel B.E. Pless I.B. Goulet C. Platt R.W. Robitaille Y.

Effectiveness of helmets in skiers and snowboarders: case-control and case crossover study.

BMJ. 330: 281Haider A.H. Saleem T. Bilaniuk J.W. Barraco R.D.

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Avalanche airbag post-burial active deflation - the ability to create an air pocket to delay asphyxiation and prolong survival.

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Recommendation on how avoid interference issue in companion and organized avalanche rescue.

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Electromagnetic interference from electronic devices used in the management of type 1 diabetes can impair the performance of an avalanche transceiver in search mode.

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Diract Voice.

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Does avalanche shovel shape affect excavation time: a pilot study.

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V-shaped conveyor belt approach to snow transport.

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