As per the results of the informants' interview, the majority of individuals familiar with Bulang traditional medicine fell between the ages of 30 and 60 (83.43%), with this age group demonstrating a higher level of definitive knowledge regarding medicinal plants than other age cohorts [25,26,27,28]. Interviews on the question of “What are the shortcomings or threats of Bulang traditional medicine?” indicated that 95% of Bulang perceived the declining number of folk doctors as one of the major factors impeding the progress of Bulang medicine. The main reason for this perception may be that Bulang folk doctors rarely practice medicine as a professional occupation, and their diagnostic fees are usually inexpensive. Revenue generated from medical practice is not a primary source of income for Bulang folk practitioners. The inheritance of traditional Bulang medicine manifests in diverse ways, with transmission occurring through familial channels, self-guided learning, experiential practice, accumulation of knowledge, and collection of medicinal preparations. Due to the lack of a written tradition, the origin and information related to the treatment procedures are not documented. Some Bulang practitioners have acquired medical knowledge from their ancestors through Dai language manuscripts, including family medical books and scriptures that cannot be shared with outsiders and are limited to male family members. Dai language belongs to the Zhuang-Dai branch of the Zhuang-Dong group of the Chinese-Tibetan Phylum, or family of languages. Dai has a writing system, which is written in an alphabetic instead of a character script. As ethnic medicine culture continues to evolve, Bulang practitioners seek to enhance their proficiency by studying Dai and Hani traditional medicinal knowledge [29, 30]. Dai and Hani villagers rely on forests for food and medicine, and most villagers and traditional healers retain some traditional knowledge of medicinal plants, which is more comprehensively documented and compiled. Bulang doctor’s consultation fees vary depending on the patient's origin. For individuals from the same village, a modest price of only 6–7 RMB is charged per visit, and sometimes, these services are provided free of charge, with ritual candles offered as an act of goodwill under their Theravada Buddhist beliefs. Conversely, those from other regions outside the province, such as Beijing and Shanghai, are charged nearly 100 RMB per visit. Diagnostic assessments by Bulang practitioners generally involve patient self-reporting, pulse-taking, and facial observation, similar to the diagnostic methods employed in TDM and TCM, which include observing, questioning, listening, smelling, and palpating.

In addition, the survey results revealed that a significant proportion (88%) of participants perceived modern medicine as more efficacious in treating diseases than traditional medicine. As China's education rate has increased in recent decades, individuals may increasingly value modern medicine's scientific underpinnings and express concerns regarding the potential adverse side effects of herbal medicine. Moreover, 80.57% of interviewees expressed the availability of medicinal plants is declining. While not all Bulang people may be practicing herbalists, they are generally knowledgeable about the flora of their surroundings since they need to differentiate between edible and poisonous plants. Unfortunately, the number of medicinal plants used by Bulang people is limited, and there is no active cultivation of these plants. The rapid changes in the environment and habitat destruction make it increasingly difficult for herbalists to find medicinal plants in the wild, which could lead to the discontinuation of their use or a reduction in their efficacy, ultimately causing patients to turn to Western medicine. This lack of sustained access to medicinal plants represents a significant challenge to the continuity of Bulang medicine.

Socioeconomic changes could result in losing or reducing medicinal plants and related indigenous knowledge [31]. Researchers have proved that a decline in medicinal plants may hinder the development of traditional medicine [32,33,34]. Xishuangbanna boasts exceptional biodiversity, positioning it among the world's most affluent regions. Nonetheless, human activities such as the under-forest economy and rubber plantation have resulted in an alarming loss of biodiversity in the area. While 41.7% of forests in the uplands (i.e., above 900 masl.) are located in the altitudinal zone of 900–1200 masl., the rapid expansion of rubber plantations into higher elevations, steeper terrain and nature reserves poses a severe threat to biodiversity and environmental services, resulting in a loss of agrobiodiversity while not producing the expected economic returns [35,36,37,38]. Rubber and tea collections have become the dominant agricultural activities from March to November and February to October, respectively. Tea production in Bulang Mountain Township surpassed 2,888 tons by the end of 2021, generating a total output value of 1.9 billion yuan [39,40,41]. The availability of medicinal plants in the Bulang community has declined due to wild collection and the reduction or loss of knowledge and cultivation practices. Inheritance of ethnomedicine and socioeconomic changes have contributed to this decline, also evident in the shrinking Bulang gardens. The tea economy and urbanization have led to the rebuilding of houses that occupy more space, leaving less room for medicinal plants. As a result, growing medicinal plants for profit was never a priority, and they are rarely sold as modern pharmacies have become prevalent in towns. This phenomenon is not unique to the Bulang community but rather a common issue associated with the loss of traditional knowledge and the decline in biodiversity due to development [42].

More than 80% of the survey participants emphasized the cultural significance of Bulang medicine, viewing it as a crucial aspect of Bulang ethnic identity. The development and evolution of traditional medicinal knowledge among ethnic minorities have been significantly shaped by the interplay of cultural, historical, environmental, and belief systems. These communities highly value traditional medicine knowledge, considering it a significant cultural heritage with deep cultural roots [43]. In ethnic minority groups, traditional medicine is more than just a treatment method; it symbolizes cultural identity, a source of community pride, and an integral aspect of the social fabric. These findings underscore the importance of preserving and promoting traditional medicinal knowledge to protect cultural heritage and promote sustainable development. The preservation of traditional medicinal knowledge is an essential aspect of safeguarding and propagating minority cultures. Various groups, including the government, scholars, communities, and knowledge bearers, are working together to protect the endangered traditional medicine culture. These collaborative efforts focus on documenting and safeguarding traditional knowledge, providing training and education to knowledge bearers and younger generations, and creating strategies for the future development of this valuable knowledge [44,45,46].

Upon analyzing the dataset for Use Value, the two botanical specimens with the greatest reported usage were Phyllanthus emblica and Houttuynia cordata, ascertaining their significant ethnobotanical value (0.97). Phyllanthus emblica belongs to the Phyllanthus genus of the Phyllanthaceae family and is extensively distributed across subtropical and tropical regions in countries such as China, India, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Its fruits are known to have high concentrations of vitamin C and superoxide dismutase, exhibiting hepatoprotective, antibacterial, anticancer, and anti-inflammatory properties [10,11,12,13]. Phyllanthus emblica has been documented in traditional Bulang and Dai medicine for treating various ailments. Bulang medicine employs Phyllanthus emblica to treat liver and gallbladder diseases, pharyngitis, abdominal distension, abdominal pain, cough, scurvy, heat clearing and detoxification, liver and gallbladder disorders, pharyngitis, abdominal distension, abdominal pain, cough, scurvy, stopping itching, sores, fever, cough etc.

Houttuynia cordata is a widely distributed and highly esteemed edible plant in southwestern China, highly regarded and consumed by Dai, Bulang, Lahu, Hani, Yao, and Dong ethnic groups [47, 48]. Using plants as both natural medicines and food sources presents a promising avenue for exploring new dietary supplements with potentially lower human safety risks and improved health outcomes [49]. Therefore, integrating Houttuynia cordata into modern food systems may significantly improve human health and well-being. Saurauia napaulensis, with the lowest Use value, is primarily distributed in southeastern and southwestern Yunnan, southwestern and northwestern Guang Xi, Gui Zhou, as well as in India, Nepal, Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia. It thrives in mountainous areas, sparse forests, and thickets situated at an altitude range of approximately 500-1500 m. Despite its extensive distribution, there needs to be more research on this plant, domestically or internationally, with only a few studies examining its chemical composition [50, 51]. It is used for detumescence, fracture, and hemostasis in both Dai and Bulang medicine.

With 165 individuals reporting its medicinal value, Camellia sinensis var. Assamica scores a high Use value of 0.94. Herbal beverages are consumed for recreational or therapeutic purposes [52,53,54,55]. Tea is the second most consumed beverage after water, with the global average per capita consumption of boiled tea being 120 ml per day [56]. Pu'er tea, the local product, is a distinct, fermented variety of tea made from the sun-dried leaves of Camellia sinensis var. assamica, endemic to Yunnan, China. The characteristic brown hue of the tea leaves is a result of microbial fermentation by Aspergillus niger during processing, in conjunction with the action of leaf oxidase [57]. Research indicates that this fermented tea exhibits a plethora of biological activities, including but not limited to antioxidant, antimutagenic, antibacterial, laxative, neuroprotective, anti-hypercholesterolemic, anti-hyperglycemic, anti-obesity, anti-diabetic, anti-osteoporotic, and anti-Alzheimer's properties, as well as inhibitory effects against fungi, cancer, and inflammation [58,59,60,61]. Notably, research also highlights the presence of certain undesired chemicals, such as heavy metals and mycotoxins, with the growing, processing and storage conditions of tea plantations being closely associated with such health concerns [62].

Bulang people use Pu'er tea as both food and medicine. Ubiquitous are Paste Rice Tea and Ming Zi Tea. Paste Rice Tea is prepared by baking glutinous rice in an earthen teapot until it turns yellow and then adding tea leaves, boiled water, sliced ginger, and brown sugar. It is believed to have therapeutic properties that help alleviate colds, coughs, sore throats, heat, dry lungs, and other ailments. In addition, Ming Zi tea is made similarly to paste rice tea but with pine resin, a sticky substance secreted by pine trees, a combination of natural oils from pine and wood fibers. The different parts of the pine and cypress trees have varying oil content, with the roots containing the highest levels and the higher branches having lower levels. This tea is believed to help alleviate gastrointestinal discomfort, constipation, and other related conditions. Another unique tea consumption method is Sour Tea, which involves fermented tea leaves. Rather than being brewed with boiling water, Sour Tea is chewed directly, allowing its flavor and aroma to fill the mouth while promoting digestion, quenching thirst, and generating fluids.

Before comparing the two ethnomedicines, understanding the difference in living altitude created a boundary between the two groups is essential. Dai, who inhabit the plains, historically referred to Bulang people living in the mountains as Man or Ka, meaning 'mountain-dweller' and 'slave', respectively. Xishuangbanna has traditionally been more economically advantageous for the Dai than the Bulang. This advantage was based on the pattern of Dai occupying the more agriculturally accessible lowlands. Nevertheless, Bulang people practiced subsistence cultivation in mountainous areas, trading tea and other substances in local periodic markets. However, inter-ethnic relations have undergone significant changes with the establishment of modern market systems and the focus on market economics. In particular, the combined efforts of foreign capital and the local resources of Pu'er tea have led to a change in the relationship between the Bulang and Dai [63, 64].

Current ethnic medicine narratives emphasize TDM's formal acknowledgement as one of China's four traditional medicines, but Bulang medicine has yet to be thoroughly investigated and structured. When Theravada Buddhism first appeared in Xishuangbanna in 1437, the Dai written language was primarily intended to preserve and transmit Buddhist teachings. Bulang people, who lacked written language, occasionally adopted the Dai script through their conversion to Buddhism. Consequently, research on Bulang medicine is still in its nascent stage due to the absence of written records; with scarce ancient literature dedicated to the subject matter and few references to Bulang medicine in other historical texts, oral transmission remains the primary mode of preserving and transmitting the existing traditional medicine knowledge among the Bulang ethnic group [65,66,67].

After analyzing the research data, we find 31 medicinal plants possess a greater therapeutic spectrum in TDM compared to Bulang, seven plants exhibit an equivalent therapeutic range in both ethnic groups (Table 5), while the remaining 22 plants listed in Table 6 display a higher degree of disease curability in Bulang medicine than in TDM. There are notable differences in the uses of specific plants between Dai and Bulang traditional medicines. Psidium guajava, for example, is commonly employed in TDM for heat clearing, detoxification, and skin conditions. In contrast, Bulang medicine primarily treats gastrointestinal ailments like enteritis, dysentery, and hemostasis. This highlights medicinal plants' unique approaches and applications in the two ethnic therapies. This plant finds applications for treating diarrhea, dysentery, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer, parasitic infections, gastroenteritis, hypertension, diabetes, caries, pain relief and improvement in locomotor coordination. Previous research indicates that Psidium guajava is commonly used to produce essential oils with antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, mosquito-repellent, and wound-healing properties[68,69,70]. These findings highlight the potential of this plant as a multipurpose resource in ethnic medicine research.

In addition, there are several other plants worth discussing. Entada phaseoloides is a plant commonly used in traditional Bulang and Dai medicine to treat soreness, fever, and amygdalitis. Recent studies have revealed its use in Chinese Yao ethnic medicine to treat rheumatism, as a nutritional supplement, and to promote blood circulation [71]. Another notable observation is that Callerya cinerea and Argyreia synesis var. cinerea, both included in Bulang medicine, are purported to have therapeutic effects on gynecological ailments. However, this curative property needs to be mentioned in TDM or widely acknowledged in current research on these plants in China and abroad. Eclipta prostrata is recognized for its medicinal value in treating abdominal pain in Bulang medicine. However, in TDM, this plant is also used to treat detumescence, analgesia, dysentery, soreness, and irregular menstruation, as well as for liver protection, immunity regulation, and detoxification. These therapeutic effects have been verified through relevant studies [72].

Conversely, Tetrastigma hemsleyanum is only known in TDM for its ability to treat detumescence, while Bulang medicine recognizes its potential to promote hemostasis, stimulate blood circulation, and alleviate swelling. Further research demonstrates that Tetrastigma hemsleyanum, particularly its root tuber and whole herb, possesses additional pharmacological activities such as heat clearing and detoxification, blood circulation activation, pain relief, wind and phlegm dispelling, and efficacy against conditions like poisonous snakebites, whooping cough, bronchitis, pneumonia, pharyngitis, hepatitis, pediatric hyperthermia, and tumors [73,74,75]. Comparison to TDM illustrates the progressive nature of Bulang medicine. Further exploration of the various medicinal properties of medicinal plants may provide valuable insights for developing new drugs and advancing medical practice, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of plants' medicinal efficacy and potential value for both traditional and modern medical practices.