NIH consensus conference. Adjuvant therapy for patients with colon and rectal cancer. JAMA. 1990;264(11):1444–50.

Article  Google Scholar 

Weiser MR. Do improvements in surgical technique mean it is time to be more selective in our approach to neoadjuvant radiotherapy for rectal cancer? Curr Colorectal Cancer Rep. 2014;10:173–9.

Article  Google Scholar 

Peeters KC, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID, et al. The TME trial after a median follow-up of 6 years: increased local control but no survival benefit in irradiated patients with resectable rectal carcinoma. Ann Surg. 2007;246(5):693–701. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.sla.0000257358.56863.ce.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rana N, Chakravarthy AB, Kachnic LA. Novel radiation approaches for the treatment of rectal cancer: where are we now? Curr Colorectal Cancer Rep. 2016;12:314–23.

Article  Google Scholar 

MacFarlane JK, Ryall RD, Heald RJ. Mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Lancet. 1993;341(8843):457–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0140-6736(93)90207-w.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Holm T, Cedermark B, Rutqvist LE. Local recurrence of rectal adenocarcinoma after ‘curative’ surgery with and without preoperative radiotherapy. Br J Surg. 1994;81(3):452–5. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800810344.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Quirke P, Durdey P, Dixon MF, Williams NS. Local recurrence of rectal adenocarcinoma due to inadequate surgical resection. Histopathological study of lateral tumour spread and surgical excision. Lancet. 1986;2(8514):996–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(86)92612-7.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Quirke P, Steele R, Monson J, et al. Effect of the plane of surgery achieved on local recurrence in patients with operable rectal cancer: a prospective study using data from the MRC CR07 and NCIC-CTG CO16 randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 2009;373(9666):821–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60485-2.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Adam IJ, Mohamdee MO, Martin IG, et al. Role of circumferential margin involvement in the local recurrence of rectal cancer. Lancet. 1994;344(8924):707–11. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(94)92206-3.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Das P, Skibber JM, Rodriguez-Bigas MA, et al. Clinical and pathologic predictors of locoregional recurrence, distant metastasis, and overall survival in patients treated with chemoradiation and mesorectal excision for rectal cancer. Am J Clin Oncol. 2006;29(3):219–24. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.coc.0000214930.78200.4a.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heald RJ, Moran BJ, Ryall RD, Sexton R, MacFarlane JK. Rectal cancer: the Basingstoke experience of total mesorectal excision, 1978–1997. Arch Surg. 1998;133(8):894–9. https://doi.org/10.1001/archsurg.133.8.894.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Folkesson J, Birgisson H, Pahlman L, Cedermark B, Glimelius B, Gunnarsson U. Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial: long lasting benefits from radiotherapy on survival and local recurrence rate. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(24):5644–50. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2005.08.144.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cedermark B, Johansson H, Rutqvist LE, Wilking N. The Stockholm I trial of preoperative short term radiotherapy in operable rectal carcinoma. A prospective randomized trial. Stockholm Colorectal Cancer Study Group. Cancer. 1995;75(9):2269–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19950501)75:9<2269::aidcncr2820750913>3.0.co;2-i.

Randomized study on preoperative radiotherapy in rectal carcinoma. Stockholm Colorectal Cancer Study Group. Ann Surg Oncol. 1996;3(5):423–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02305759.

Article  Google Scholar 

Cedermark B, Theve NO, Rieger A, et al. Preoperative short-term radiotherapy in rectal carcinoma. A preliminary report of a prospective randomized study. Cancer. 1985;55(6):1182–1185. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19850315)55:6<1182::aidcncr2820550607>3.0.co;2-7

Short-term preoperative radiotherapy for adenocarcinoma of the rectum. An interim analysis of a randomized multicenter trial. Stockholm Rectal Cancer Study Group. Am J Clin Oncol. 1987;10(5):369–75. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000421-198710000-00001.

Article  Google Scholar 

Preoperative short-term radiation therapy in operable rectal carcinoma. A prospective randomized trial.Stockholm Rectal Cancer Study Group. Cancer. 1990;66(1):49–55. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0142(19900701)66:1<49::aid-cncr2820660111>3.0.co;2-1

Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial, Cedermark B, Dahlberg M, et al. Improved survival with preoperative radiotherapy in resectable rectal cancer [published correction appears in N Engl J Med 1997 May 22;336(21):1539]. N Engl J Med. 1997;336(14):980–987. doi:https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199704033361402

Dahlberg M, Glimelius B, Påhlman L. Improved survival and reduction in local failure rates after preoperative radiotherapy: evidence for the generalizability of the results of Swedish Rectal Cancer Trial. Ann Surg. 1999;229(4):493–7. https://doi.org/10.1097/00000658-199904000-00007.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Cammà C, Giunta M, Fiorica F, Pagliaro L, Craxì A, Cottone M. Preoperative radiotherapy for resectable rectal cancer: a meta-analysis. JAMA. 2000;284(8):1008–15. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.284.8.1008.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Colorectal Cancer Collaborative Group. Adjuvant radiotherapy for rectal cancer: a systematic overview of 8,507 patients from 22 randomised trials. Lancet. 2001;358(9290):1291–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)06409-1.

Article  Google Scholar 

van Gijn W, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer: 12-year follow-up of the multicentre, randomised controlled TME trial. Lancet Oncol. 2011;12(6):575–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1470-2045(11)70097-3.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CA, Nagtegaal ID, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2001;345(9):638–46. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa010580.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Thomas PR, Lindblad AS. Adjuvant postoperative radiotherapy and chemotherapy in rectal carcinoma: a review of the Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group experience. Radiother Oncol. 1988;13(4):245–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-8140(88)90219-8.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group. Prolongation of the disease-free interval in surgically treated rectal carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1985;312(23):1465–72. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198506063122301.

Article  Google Scholar 

Radiation therapy and fluorouracil with or without semustine for the treatment of patients with surgical adjuvant adenocarcinoma of the rectum. Gastrointestinal Tumor Study Group. J Clin Oncol. 1992;10(4):549–557. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.1992.10.4.549

Krook JE, Moertel CG, Gunderson LL, et al. Effective surgical adjuvant therapy for high-risk rectal carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 1991;324(11):709–15. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199103143241101.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Fisher B, Wolmark N, Rockette H, et al. Postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy or radiation therapy for rectal cancer: results from NSABP protocol R-01. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1988;80(1):21–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/80.1.21.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Duncan W. Adjuvant radiotherapy in rectal cancer: the MRC trials. Br J Surg. 1985;72(Suppl):S59–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800721333.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Randomised trial of surgery alone versus surgery followed by radiotherapy for mobile cancer of the rectum. Medical Research Council Rectal Cancer Working Party. Lancet. 1996;348(9042):1610–1614.

Tveit KM, Guldvog I, Hagen S, et al. Randomized controlled trial of postoperative radiotherapy and short-term time-scheduled 5-fluorouracil against surgery alone in the treatment of Dukes B and C rectal cancer. Norwegian Adjuvant Rectal Cancer Project Group. Br J Surg. 1997;84(8):1130–5.

PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

O’Connell MJ, Martenson JA, Wieand HS, et al. Improved combined modality surgical adjuvant therapy for high risk rectal cancer [abstract]. Proc ASCO 1993; 564.

O’Connell MJ, Martenson JA, Wieand HS, et al. Improving adjuvant therapy for rectal cancer by combining protracted venous infusion fluorouracil with radiation therapy after curative surgery. N Engl J Med. 1994;331:502–7.

Article  Google Scholar 

O’Connell MJ, Laurie JA, Kahn M, et al. Prospectively randomized trial of postoperative adjuvant chemotherapy in patients with high-risk colon cancer. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16(1):295–300. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.1998.16.1.295.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Roh MS, Colangelo LH, O’Connell MJ, et al. Preoperative multimodality therapy improves disease-free survival in patients with carcinoma of the rectum: NSABP R-03. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(31):5124–30. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2009.22.0467.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gerard JP, Bonnetain F, Conroy T, et al. Preoperative radiotherapy +/- 5 FU/folinic acid in T3–4 rectal cancers: results of the FFCD 9203 randomized trial. Proc ASCO. 2005;23:247s.

Google Scholar 

Bujko K, Nowacki MP, Nasierowska-Guttmejer A, et al. Sphincter preservation following preoperative radiotherapy for rectal cancer: report of a randomised trial comparing short-term radiotherapy vs. conventionally fractionated radiochemotherapy. Radiother Oncol. 2004;72(1):15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radonc.2003.12.006.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bujko K, Nowacki MP, Nasierowska-Guttmejer A, Michalski W, Bebenek M, Kryj M. Long-term results of a randomized trial comparing preoperative short-course radiotherapy with preoperative conventionally fractionated chemoradiation for rectal cancer. Br J Surg. 2006;93(10):1215–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.5506.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bosset JF, Collette L, Calais G, et al. Chemotherapy with preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer [published correction appears in N Engl J Med. 2007 Aug 16;357(7):728]. N Engl J Med. 2006;355(11):1114–23. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa060829.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bosset JF, Magnin V, Maingon P, et al. Preoperative radiochemotherapy in rectal cancer: long-term results of a phase II trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2000;46(2):323–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0360-3016(99)00411-3.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bosset JF, Calais G, Daban A, et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy versus preoperative radiotherapy in rectal cancer patients: assessment of acute toxicity and treatment compliance. Report of the 22921 randomised trial conducted by the EORTC Radiotherapy Group. Eur J Cancer. 2004;40(2):219–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2003.09.032.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Medich D, McGinty J, Parda D, et al. Preoperative chemoradiotherapy and radical surgery for locally advanced distal rectal adenocarcinoma: pathologic findings and clinical implications. Dis Colon Rectum. 2001;44(8):1123–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02234632.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Janjan NA, Khoo VS, Abbruzzese J, et al. Tumor downstaging and sphincter preservation with preoperative chemoradiation in locally advanced rectal cancer: the M. D. Anderson Cancer Center experience. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1999;44(5):1027–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0360-3016(99)00099-1.

Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Sauer R, Becker H, Hohenberger W, et al. Preoperative versus postoperative chemoradiotherapy for rectal cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004;351(17):1731–40. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa040694.

Article  PubMed  CAS