1.
Reigadas, E, Alcalá, L, Marín, M, et al. Clinical, immunological and microbiological predictors of poor outcome in Clostridium difficile infection. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2017; 88: 330–334.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline2.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) . Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States, 2019. Atlanta, GA: CDC, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2019.
Google Scholar |
Crossref3.
Kulaylat, AS, Kassam, Z, Hollenbeak, CS, et al. A surgical clostridium-associated risk of death score predicts mortality after colectomy for Clostridium difficile. Dis Colon Rectum 2017; 60: 1285–1290.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline4.
Kassam, Z, Cribb Fabersunne, C, Smith, MB, et al. Clostridium difficile associated risk of death score (CARDS): a novel severity score to predict mortality among hospitalised patients with C. difficile infection. Aliment Pharmacol Ther 2016; 43: 725–733.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline5.
Napolitano, LM, Edmiston, CE Clostridium difficile disease: diagnosis, pathogenesis, and treatment update. Surgery 2017; 162: 325–348.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline6.
Guh, AY, Mu, Y, Winston, LG, et al. Trends in U.S. burden of Clostridioides difficile infection and outcomes. N Engl J Med 2020; 382: 1320–1330.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline7.
Cohen, SH, Gerding, DN, Johnson, S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010; 31: 431–455.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI8.
McDonald, LC, Gerding, DN, Johnson, S, et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults and children: 2017 update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA). Clin Infect Dis off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am 2018; 66: e1–e48.
Google Scholar |
Crossref9.
Khanafer, N, Barbut, F, Eckert, C, et al. Factors predictive of severe Clostridium difficile infection depend on the definition used. Anaerobe 2016; 37: 43–48.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline10.
Abou Chakra, CN, Pepin, J, Valiquette, L. Prediction tools for unfavourable outcomes in Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 2012; 7: e30258.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline11.
Surawicz, CM, Brandt, LJ, Binion, DG, et al. Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of Clostridium difficile infections. Am J Gastroenterol 2013; 108: 478–498.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI12.
Belmares, J, Gerding, DN, Tillotson, G, et al. Measuring the severity of Clostridium difficile infection: implications for management and drug development. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2008; 6: 897–908.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline13.
Bishop, EJ, Tiruvoipati, R, Metcalfe, J, et al. The outcome of patients with severe and severe-complicated Clostridium difficile infection treated with tigecycline combination therapy: a retrospective observational study: Tigecycline combination therapy for CDI. Intern Med J 2018; 48: 651–660.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline14.
Keller, JJ, Kuijper, EJ. Treatment of recurrent and severe Clostridium difficile infection. Annu Rev Med 2015; 66: 373–386.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline15.
Morgan, OW, Rodrigues, B, Elston, T, et al. Clinical Severity of Clostridium difficile PCR Ribotype 027: a case-case study. PLoS ONE 2008; 3: e1812.
Google Scholar |
Crossref16.
Abou Chakra, CN, McGeer, A, Labbé, A-C, et al. Factors associated with complications of Clostridium difficile infection in a multicenter prospective cohort. Clin Infect Dis off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am 2015; 61: 1781–1788.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline17.
Shaw, HA, Preston, MD, Vendrik, KEW, et al. The recent emergence of a highly related virulent Clostridium difficile clade with unique characteristics. Clin Microbiol Infect 2020; 26: 492–498.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline18.
See, I, Mu, Y, Cohen, J, et al. NAP1 strain type predicts outcomes from Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2014; 58: 1394–1400.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI19.
Sundram, F, Guyot, A, Carboo, I, et al. Clostridium difficile ribotypes 027 and 106: clinical outcomes and risk factors. J Hosp Infect 2009; 72: 111–118.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline20.
Swale, A, Miyajima, F, Roberts, P, et al. Calprotectin and Lactoferrin Faecal levels in patients with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI): a prospective cohort study. PLoS ONE 2014; 9: e106118.
Google Scholar |
Crossref21.
Kim, J, Kim, H, Oh, HJ, et al. Fecal calprotectin level reflects the severity of clostridium difficile infection. Ann Lab Med 2017; 37: 53–57.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline22.
Abou Chakra, CN, Pepin, J, Sirard, S, et al. Risk factors for recurrence, complications and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection: a systematic review. PLoS ONE 2014; 9: e98400.
Google Scholar |
Crossref23.
Janezic, S, Potocnik, M, Zidaric, V, et al. Highly divergent Clostridium difficile strains isolated from the environment. PLoS ONE 2016; 11: e0167101.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline24.
Bouchet, V, Huot, H, Goldstein, R. Molecular genetic basis of ribotyping. Clin Microbiol Rev 2008; 21: 262–273.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline25.
Martinson, JNV, Broadaway, S, Lohman, E, et al. Evaluation of portability and cost of a fluorescent PCR Ribotyping protocol for Clostridium difficile epidemiology. J Clin Microbiol 2015; 53: 1192–1197.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline26.
Bartlett, JG, Chang, TW, Gurwith, M, et al. Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis due to toxin-producing clostridia. N Engl J Med 1978; 298: 531–534.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI27.
Pierce, PF, Wilson, R, Silva, J, et al. Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis: an epidemiologic investigation of a cluster of cases. J Infect Dis 1982; 145: 269–274.
Google Scholar28.
Johnson, S, Clabots, CR, Linn, FV, et al. Nosocomial Clostridium difficile colonisation and disease. Lancet 1990; 336: 97–100.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI29.
Nolan, NP, Kelly, CP, Humphreys, JF, et al. An epidemic of pseudomembranous colitis: importance of person to person spread. Gut 1987; 28: 1467–1473.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI30.
Loo, VG, Poirier, L, Miller, MA, et al. A Predominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile–associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2442–2449.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI31.
McDonald, LC, Killgore, GE, Thompson, A, et al. An epidemic, toxin gene–variant strain of Clostridium difficile. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 2433–2441.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI32.
McDonald, LC, Owings, M, Jernigan, DB. Clostridium difficile infection in patients discharged from US Short-stay Hospitals, 1996–2003. Emerg Infect Dis 2006; 12: 409–415.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI33.
Redelings, MD, Sorvillo, F, Mascola, L. Increase in Clostridium difficile–related mortality rates, United States, 1999–2004. Emerg Infect Dis 2007; 13: 1417–1419.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI34.
Smith, A . Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in an English hospital linked to hypertoxin-producing strains in Canada and the US. Wkly Releases 2005; 10: 2735.
Google Scholar35.
Hubert, B, Loo, VG, Bourgault, A-M, et al. A portrait of the geographic dissemination of the Clostridium difficile North American pulsed-field type 1 strain and the epidemiology of C. difficile-associated disease in Québec. Clin Infect Dis off Publ Infect Dis Soc Am 2007; 44: 238–244.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI36.
Goorhuis, A, Bakker, D, Corver, J, et al. Emergence of Clostridium difficile Infection due to a new hypervirulent strain, polymerase chain reaction Ribotype 078. Clin Infect Dis 2008; 47: 1162–1170.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI37.
van Dorp, SM, Smajlović, E, Knetsch, CW, et al. Clinical and microbiological characteristics of Clostridium difficile infection among hospitalized children in the Netherlands. Clin Infect Dis 2017; 64: 192–198.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline38.
Keessen, EC, Hensgens, MP, Spigaglia, P, et al. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiles of human and piglet Clostridium difficile PCR-ribotype 078. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2013; 2: 14.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline39.
Pépin, J, Valiquette, L, Cossette, B. Mortality attributable to nosocomial Clostridium difficile–associated disease during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain in Quebec. CMAJ 2005; 173: 1037–1042.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI40.
Scardina, T, Labuszewski, L, Pacheco, SM, et al. Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) severity and outcome among patients infected with the NAP1/BI/027 strain in a non-epidemic setting. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 36: 280–286.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline41.
Walker, AS, Eyre, DW, Wyllie, DH, et al. Relationship between bacterial strain type, host biomarkers, and mortality in Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2013; 56: 1589–1600.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline42.
Patterson, L, Wilcox, MH, Fawley, WN, et al. Morbidity and mortality associated with Clostridium difficile ribotype 078: a case–case study. J Hosp Infect 2012; 82: 125–128.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline43.
Walk, ST, Micic, D, Jain, R, et al. Clostridium difficile Ribotype does not predict severe infection. Clin Infect Dis 2012; 55: 1661–1668.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline |
ISI44.
Menon, A, Perry, DA, Motyka, J, et al. Changes in the association between diagnostic testing method, polymerase chain reaction Ribotype, and clinical outcomes from Clostridioides difficile infection: one institution’s experience. Clin Infect Dis 2020: ciaa1395.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline45.
Goorhuis, A, Debast, SB, Dutilh, JC, et al. Type-specific risk factors and outcome in an outbreak with 2 different Clostridium difficile types simultaneously in 1 hospital. Clin Infect Dis 2011; 53: 860–869.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline46.
Imwattana, K, Knight, DR, Kullin, B, et al. Clostridium difficile ribotype 017 – characterization, evolution and epidemiology of the dominant strain in Asia. Emerg Microbes Infect 2019; 8: 796–807.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline47.
Carlson, TJ, Blasingame, D, Gonzales-Luna, AJ, et al. Clostridium difficile ribotype 106: a systematic review of the antimicrobial susceptibility, genetics, and clinical outcomes of this common worldwide strain. Anaerobe 2020; 62: 102142.
Google Scholar |
Crossref |
Medline48.
Cho, J, Cunningham, S, Pu, M, et al. Clostridium difficile whole-genome sequencing differentiates relapse with the same strain from reinfection with a new strain. Clin Infect Dis 2020: ciaa159.
Google Scholar
Comments (0)