Abdellah ZinedineJalila Ben Salah-AbbesSamir AbbèsAbdelrhafour Tantaoui-ElarakiChapter

First Online: 07 October 2021

Part of the Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology book series Abstract

Aflatoxins are the most harmful mycotoxins causing health problems to human and animal. Many acute aflatoxin outbreaks have been reported in Africa, especially in Kenya and Tanzania. When ingested, aflatoxin B1 is converted by hydroxylation in the liver into aflatoxin M1, which is excreted in milk of dairy females and in urine of exposed populations. This review aims to highlight the AFM1 studies carried out in African regions (North Africa, East Africa, West Africa, Central Africa, and Southern Africa), particularly AFM1 occurrence in milk and dairy products, and in human biological fluids (breast milk, serum, and urine) of the populations exposed. Strategies for AFM1 detoxification will be considered, as well as AFM1 regulations as compared to the legislation adopted worldwide and the assessment of AFM1 exposure of some African populations. Egypt, Kenya, and Nigeria have the highest number of investigations on AFM1 in the continent. Indeed, some reports showed that 100% of the samples analyzed exceeded the EU regulations (50 ng/kg), especially in Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Sudan, and Egypt. Furthermore, AFM1 levels up to 8,000, 6,999, 6,900, and 2040 ng/kg have been reported in milk from Egypt, Kenya, Sudan, and Nigeria, respectively. Data on AFM1 occurrence in human biological fluids have also shown that exposure of African populations is mainly due to milk intake and breastfeeding, with 85–100% of children being exposed to high levels. Food fermentation in Africa has been tried for AFM1 detoxification strategies. Few African countries have set regulations for AFM1 in milk and derivatives, generally similar to those of the Codex alimentarius, the US or the EU standards.

KeywordsAflatoxin M1 Africa Exposure assessment Occurrence Prevention Regulations 

AbbreviationsAF

Aflatoxin

AF-alb

Aflatoxin-albumin

AFB1

Aflatoxin B1

AFB2

Aflatoxin B2

AFM1

Aflatoxin M1

AFM2

Aflatoxin M2

ALT

Alanine aminotransferase

AST

Aspartate transaminase

b.w.

Body weight

BM

Breast milk

BTA

Bladder tumor antigen

EDI

Estimated daily intake

ELISA

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay

GRAS

Generally recognized as safe

HA

Human aflatoxicosis

HBV

Hepatitis B virus

HCC

Hepatocellular carcinoma

HIV

Human immunodeficiency virus

HPLC

High performance liquid chromatography

LAB

Lactic acid bacteria

LC/MS-MS

Liquid chromatography tandem-mass spectrometry

LD50

Lethal dose, 50%

MRL

Maximum regulatory limit

PBS

Phosphate-buffered saline

TDI

Tolerable daily intake

TLC

Thin layer chromatography

UHT

Ultra-heat-treated

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NotesAcknowledgments

This paper has been supported by the PHC Maghreb “09MAG20” project. The authors are most grateful to the Moroccan Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, the National Center for Scientific and Technical Research (CNRST) of Morocco, and the Tunisian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research for the support given.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare regarding this paper.

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