Alshamsan, R., Lee, J. T., Majeed, A., Netuveli, G., Millett, C. (2012). Effect of a UK pay-for-performance program on ethnic disparities in diabetes outcomes: Interrupted time series analysis. Annals of Family Medicine, 10(3), 228-234. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1335
Google Scholar Alshamsan, R., Majeed, A., Ashworth, M., Car, J., Millett, C. (2010). Impact of pay for performance on inequalities in health care: systematic review. Journal of Health Services Research & Policy, 15(3), 178-184. https://doi.org/10.1258/jhsrp.2010.009113
Google Scholar Angrist, J. D., Pischke, J. S. (2009). Mostly harmless econometrics: An empiricist’s companion. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400829828
Google Scholar Ashworth, M., Gulliford, M. (2017). Funding for general practice in the next decade: Life after QOF. British Journal of General Practice, 67(654), 4-5. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp17X688477
Google Scholar Bardach, N. S., Wang, J. J., De Leon, S. F., Shih, S. C., Boscardin, W. J., Goldman, L. E., Dudley, R. A. (2013). Effect of pay-for-performance incentives on quality of care in small practices with electronic health records: A randomized trial. JAMA, 310(10), 1051-1059. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.277353
Google Scholar Begum, R., Ryan, M. S., Winther, C. H., Wang, J. J., Bardach, N. S., Parsons, A. H., Shi, S. C., Dudley, R. A. (2013). Small practices' experience with EHR, quality measurement, and incentives. American Journal of Managed Care, 19(10), eSP12-8. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24511883/
Google Scholar British Medical Association . (2020). Global sum allocation formula. https://www.bma.org.uk/advice-and-support/gp-practices/funding-and-contracts/global-sum-allocation-formula
Google Scholar Brosig-Koch, J., Hennig-Schmidt, H., Kairies-Schwarz, N., Wiesen, D. (2016). Using artefactual field and lab experiments to investigate how fee-for-service and capitation affect medical service provision. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 131(Pt B), 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2015.04.011
Google Scholar Campbell, S. M., Reeves, D., Kontopantelis, E., Sibbald, B., Roland, M. (2009). Effects of pay for performance on the quality of primary care in England. New England Journal of Medicine, 361(4), 368-378. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa0807651
Google Scholar Conrad, D. A., Perry, L. (2009). Quality-based financial incentives in health care: Can we improve quality by paying for it? Annual Review of Public Health, 30, 357-371. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.031308.100243
Google Scholar Curtis, L., Burns, A. (2016). Unit costs of health and social care 2016 UK: Personal social services research unit, Cornwallis Building, The University of Kent.
Google Scholar Damberg, C. L., Sorbero, M. E., Lovejoy, S. L., Martsolf, G. R., Raaen, L., Mandel, D. (2014). Measuring success in health care value-based purchasing programs: Summary and recommendations. RAND Corporation
Google Scholar Daw, J., Hatfield, L. (2018). Matching and regression to the mean in difference-in-differences analysis. Health Services Research, 53(6), 4138-4156. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12993
Google Scholar Department for Communities and Local Government . (2015). The English indices of deprivation 2015: Statistical release. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/465791/English_Indices_of_Deprivation_2015_-_Statistical_Release.pdf
Google Scholar Dimick, J. B., Ryan, A. M. (2014). Methods for evaluating changes in health care policy: The difference-in-differences approach. JAMA, 312(22), 2401-2402. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.16153
Google Scholar Dixon, A., Khachatryan, A. (2010). A review of the public health impact of the Quality and Outcomes Framework. Quality in Primary Care, 18(2), 133-138. https://primarycare.imedpub.com/a-review-of-the-public-health-impact-of-the-quality-and-outcomes-framewor.pdf
Google Scholar Doran, T., Fullwood, C., Gravelle, H., Reeves, D., Kontopantelis, E., Hiroeh, U., Roland, M. (2006). Pay-for-performance programs in family practices in the United Kingdom. New England Journal of Medicine, 355(4), 375-384. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa055505
Google Scholar Doran, T., Fullwood, C., Kontopantelis, E., Reeves, D. (2008). Effect of financial incentives on inequalities in the delivery of primary clinical care in England: Analysis of clinical activity indicators for the quality and outcomes framework. The Lancet, 372(9640), 728-736. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61123-X
Google Scholar Doran, T., Kontopantelis, E., Reeves, D., Sutton, M., Ryan, A. M. (2014). Setting performance targets in pay for performance programmes: What can we learn from QOF? British Medical Journal, 348, Article g1595. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g1595
Google Scholar Doran, T., Kontopantelis, E., Valderas, J. M., Campbell, S., Roland, M., Salisbury, C., Reeves, D. (2011). Effect of financial incentives on incentivised and non-incentivised clinical activities: Longitudinal analysis of data from the UK Quality and Outcomes Framework. British Medical Journal, 342, Article d3590. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.d3590
Google Scholar Doran, T., Maurer, K. A., Ryan, A. M. (2017). Impact of provider incentives on quality and value of health care. Annual Review of Public Health, 38, 449-465. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-032315-021457
Google Scholar Eijkenaar, F., Emmert, M., Scheppach, M., Schoffski, O. (2013). Effects of pay for performance in health care: A systematic review of systematic reviews. Health Policy, 110(2-3), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2013.01.008
Google Scholar Emmert, M., Eijkenaar, F., Kemter, H., Esslinger, A. S., Schöffski, O. (2012). Economic evaluation of pay-for-performance in health care: A systematic review. European Journal of Health Economics, 13(6), 755-767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-011-0329-8
Google Scholar Fleetcroft, R., Parekh-Bhurke, S., Howe, A., Cookson, R., Swift, L., Steel, N. (2010). The UK pay-for-performance programme in primary care: Estimation of population mortality reduction. British Journal of General Practice, 60(578), e345-e352. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp10X515359
Google Scholar Flodgren, G., Eccles, M. P., Shepperd, S., Scott, A., Parmelli, E., Beyer, F. R. (2011). An overview of reviews evaluating the effectiveness of financial incentives in changing healthcare professional behaviours and patient outcomes. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 7, Article 9255. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD009255
Google Scholar Forbes, L. J., Marchand, C., Doran, T., Peckham, S. (2017). The role of the Quality and Outcomes Framework in the care of long-term conditions: A systematic review. British Journal of General Practice, 67(664), e775-e784. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp17X693077
Google Scholar Gillam, S. J., Siriwardena, A. N., Steel, N. (2012). Pay-for-performance in the United Kingdom: Impact of the Quality and Outcomes Framework—A systematic review. Annals of Family Medicine, 10(5), 461-468. https://doi.org/10.1370/afm.1377
Google Scholar Girault, A., Minvielle, E., Loirat, P., Jiang, S., Lalloué, B., Ferrua, M. (2017). Evaluation of the effects of the French pay-for-performance program—IFAQ pilot study. International Journal for Quality in Health Care, 29(6), 833-837. https://doi.org/10.1093/intqhc/mzx111
Google Scholar Glidewell, L., West, R., Hackett, J. E., Carder, P., Doran, T., Foy, R. (2015). Does a local financial incentive scheme reduce inequalities in the delivery of clinical care in a socially deprived community? A longitudinal data analysis. BMC Family Practice, 16, Article 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-015-0279-9
Google Scholar Green, E. P. (2014). Payment systems in the healthcare industry: An experimental study of physician incentives. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 106(October), 367-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2014.05.009
Google Scholar Grigoroglou, C., Munford, L., Webb, R. T., Kapur, N., Doran, T., Ashcroft, D. M., Kontopantelis, E. (2018). Association between a national primary care pay-for-performance scheme and suicide rates in England: Spatial cohort study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 213(4), 600-608. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.143
Google Scholar Grimaldi, A. (2018). Faut-il financer la qualité des soins et adopter le « pay for performance » (P4P) des anglo-saxons? [Should we finance the quality of care and adopt the pay for performance (P4P) of Anglo-Saxon countries?] Médecine des Maladies Métaboliques, 12(3), 284-290. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1957-2557(18)30060-9
Google Scholar Guthrie, B., McLean, G., Sutton, M. (2006). Workload and reward in the Quality and Outcomes Framework of the 2004 general practice contract. British Journal of General Practice, 56(532), 836-841. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1927091/
Google Scholar Hackett, J., Glidewell, L., West, R., Carder, P., Doran, T., Foy, R. (2014). Just another incentive scheme: A qualitative interview study of a local pay-for-performance scheme for primary care. BMC Family Practice, 15(1), Article 168. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12875-014-0168-7
Google Scholar Hamel, M. B., Roland, M., Campbell, S. (2014). Successes and failures of pay for performance in the United Kingdom. New England Journal of Medicine, 370(20), Article 1944. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMhpr1316051
Google Scholar Harrison, M. J., Dusheiko, M., Sutton, M., Gravelle, H., Doran, T., Roland, M. (2014). Effect of a national primary care pay for performance scheme on emergency hospital admissions for ambulatory care sensitive conditions: Controlled longitudinal study. British Medical Journal, 349, Article g6423. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g6423
Google Scholar Hennig-Schmidt, H., Selten, R., Wiesen, D. (2011). How payment systems affect physicians’ provision behaviour—An experimental investigation. Journal of Health Economics, 30(4), 637-646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhealeco.2011.05.001
Google Scholar Herbst, T., Foerster, J., Emmert, M. (2018). The impact of pay-for-performance on the quality of care in ophthalmology: Empirical evidence from Germany. Health Policy, 122(6), 667-673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpol.2018.03.013
Google Scholar Houle, S. K., McAlister, F. A., Jackevicius, C. A., Chuck, A. W., Tsuyuki, R. T. (2012). Does performance-based remuneration for individual health care practitioners affect patient care? A systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine, 157(12), 889-899. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-157-12-201212180-00009
Google Scholar Kondo, K. K., Damberg, C. L., Mendelson, A., Motu'apuaka, M., Freeman, M., O'Neil, M., Relevo, R., Low, A., Kansagara, D. (2016). Implementation processes and pay for performance in healthcare: A systematic review. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 31(Suppl. 1), 61-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-015-3567-0
Google Scholar Kontopantelis, E., Springate, D. A., Ashworth, M., Webb, R. T., Buchan, I. E., Doran, T. (2015). Investigating the relationship between quality of primary care and premature mortality in England: A spatial whole-population study. British Medical Journal, 350, Article h904. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.h904
Google Scholar Lee, J. T., Netuveli, G., Majeed, A., Millett, C. (2011). The effects of pay for performance on disparities in stroke, hypertension, and coronary heart disease management: Interrupted time series study. PLOS ONE, 6(12), Article e27236. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0027236
Google Scholar Lester, H., Schmittdiel, J., Selby, J., Fireman, B., Campbell, S., Lee, J., Whippy, A., Madvig, P. (2010). The impact of removing financial incentives from clinical quality indicators: longitudinal analysis of four Kaiser Permanente indicators. British Medical Journal, 340, Article c1898. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c1898
Google Scholar Mandavia, R., Mehta, N., Schilder, A., Mossialos, E. (2017). Effectiveness of UK provider financial incentives on quality of care: A systematic review. British Journal of General Practice, 67(664), e800-e815. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp17X693149
Google Scholar Markovitz, A. A., Ryan, A. M. (2017). Pay-for-performance: Disappointing results or masked heterogeneity? Medical Care Research Review, 74(1), 3-78. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077558715619282
Google Scholar Marshall, M., Roland, M. (2017). The future of the Quality and Outcomes Framework in England. British Medical Journal, 359, Article j4681. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.j4681
Google Scholar Mendelson, A., Kondo, K., Damberg, C., Low, A., Motuapuaka, M., Freeman, M., O'Neil, M., Relevo, R., Kansagara, D. (2017). The effects of pay-for-performance programs on health, health care use, and processes of care: A systematic review. Annals of Internal Medicine, 166(5), 341-353. https://doi.org/10.7326/M16-1881
Google Scholar Minchin, M., Roland, M., Richardson, J., Rowark, S., Guthrie, B. (2018). Quality of care in the United Kingdom after removal of financial incentives. New England Journal of Medicine, 379(10), 948-957. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1801495
Google Scholar Pandya, A., Doran, T., Zhu, J., Walker, S., Arntson, E., Ryan, A. M. (2018). Modelling the cost-effectiveness of pay-for-performance in primary care in the UK. BMC Medicine, 16(1), Article 135. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-018-1126-3
Google Scholar Petersen, L. A., Simpson, K., Pietz, K., Urech, T. H., Hysong, S. J., Profit, J., Conrad, D. A., Adams Dudley, R. A., Woodard, L. D. (2013). Effects of individual physician-level and practice-level financial incentives on hypertension care: A randomized trial. JAMA, 310(10), 1042-1050. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.276303
Google Scholar Petersen, L. A., Woodard, L. D., Urech, T., Daw, C., Sookanan, S. (2006). Does pay-for-performance improve the quality of health care? Annals of Internal Medicine, 145(4), 265-272. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-145-4-200608150-00006
Google Scholar Raleigh, V. S. (2018). Quality and Outcomes Framework at the fork in the road. British Medical Journal, 362, Article k3645. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k3645
Google Scholar Robbins, M., Davenport, S. (2021). Microsynth: Synthetic Control Methods for Disaggregated and Micro-Level Data in R. Journal of Statistical Software, 97(2), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v097.i02
Google Scholar Roland, M. (2016). Does pay-for-performance in primary care save lives? Lancet, 388(10041):217-218. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00550-X
Google Scholar Roland, M., Dudley, R. A. (2015). How financial and reputational incentives can be used to improve medical care. Health Services Research, 50(S2), 2090-2115. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12419
Google Scholar Roland, M., Guthrie, B. (2016). Quality and Outcomes Framework: What have we learnt? British Medical Journal, 354, Article i4060. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4060
Google Scholar Roland, M., Olesen, F. (2016). Can pay for performance improve the quality of primary care? British Medical Journal, 354, Article i4058. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4058
Google Scholar Rosenbaum, P. R., Rubin, D. B. (1983). The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika, 70(1), 41-55. https://doi.org/10.1093/biomet/70.1.41
Google Scholar Ryan, A. M., Krinsky, S., Kontopantelis, E., Doran, T. (2016). Long-term evidence for the effect of pay-for-performance in primary care on mortality in the UK: A population study. Lancet, 388(10041), 268-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00276-2
Google Scholar Scott, A., Sivey, P., Ait Ouakrim, D., Willenberg, L., Naccarella, L., Furler, J., Young, D. (2011). The effect of financial incentives on the quality of health care provided by primary care physicians. Cochrane Database Systematic Reviews, 9, Article Cd008451. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD008451.pub2
Google Scholar Soucat, A., Dale, E., Mathauer, I., Kutzin, J. (2017). Pay-for-performance debate: Not seeing the forest for the trees. Health Systems & Reform, 3(2), 74-79. https://doi.org/10.1080/23288604.2017.1302902
Google Scholar Steel, N., Shekelle, P. (2016). After 12 years, where next for QOF? British Medical Journal, 354, Article i4103. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.i4103
Google Scholar Thorne, T. (2016). How could the Quality and Outcomes Framework (QOF) do more to tackle health inequalities? London Journal of Primary Care, 8(5), 80-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/17571472.2016.1215370
Google Scholar Van Herck, P., De Smedt, D., Annemans, L., Remmen, R., Rosenthal, M. B., Sermeus, W. (2010). Systematic review: Effects, design choices, and context of pay-for-performance in health care. BMC Health Services Research, 10(1), Article 247. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-10-247
Google Scholar Walker, S., Mason, A. R., Claxton, K., Cookson, R., Fenwick, E., Fleetcroft, R., Sculpher, M. (2010). Value for money and the Quality and Outcomes Framework in primary care in the UK NHS. British Journal of General Practice, 60(574), e213-e220. https://doi.org/10.3399/bjgp10X501859
Google Scholar Witter, S., Fretheim, A., Kessy, F. L., Lindahl, A. K. (2012). Paying for p