Still Separate, Still Not Equal: An Ecological Examination of Redlining and Racial Segregation with COVID-19 Vaccination Administration in Washington D.C.

Brown KM, Lewis JY, Davis SK. An ecological study of the association between neighborhood racial and economic residential segregation with COVID-19 vulnerability in the United States’ capital city. Ann Epidemiol. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annepidem.2021.04.003.

Bilal U, Barber S, Diez-Roux AV. Spatial inequities in COVID-19 outcomes in three US cities. medRxiv 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.05.01.20087833.

Zelner J, et al. Racial disparities in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) mortality are driven by unequal infection risks. Clin Infect Dis. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1723.

Renelus BD, et al. Racial disparities in COVID-19 hospitalization and in-hospital mortality at the height of the New York City pandemic. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00872-x.

Snowden LR, Graaf G. COVID-19, social determinants past, present, and future, and African Americans’ health. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00923-3.

Dalsania AK, et al. The relationship between social determinants of health and racial disparities in COVID-19 mortality. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00952-y.

Link BG, Phelan J. Social conditions as fundamental causes of disease. J Health Soc Behav. 1995;80–94.

Phelan JC, Link BG. Is racism a fundamental cause of inequalities in health? Annu Rev Sociol. 2015;41:311–30.

Article  Google Scholar 

Williams DR, Collins C. Racial residential segregation: a fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep. 2001. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3549(04)50068-7. (Preprint at).

Williams DR, Cooper LA. COVID-19 and health equity - a new kind of ‘herd immunity’. JAMA - J Am Med Assoc. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.8051. (Preprint at).

U.S. Department of Housing, Urban Development. About Us. Federal Housing Administration. n.d. https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/housing/fhahistory. Accessed 10 Sept 2021.

Interim report on conditions in the Washington, D.C.Housing Market as of June 1, 1940, Division of Researchand Statistics. http://mappingsegregationdc.org/assets/negro-housing-rpt-1940_excerpt.pdf. Accessed 28 Aug 2020.

Federal Housing Administration. Underwriting manual -underwriting and valuation procedure under Title II of the National Housing Act. 1939. https://www.huduser.gov/portal/sites/default/files/pdf/Federal-Housing-Administration-Underwriting-Manual.pdf. Accessed 2 Nov 2021.

Google Scholar 

Lipsitz G. The possessive investment in whiteness: how white people profit from identity politics. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press; 2009.

Google Scholar 

Park KA, Quercia RG. Who lends beyond the red line? The Community Reinvestment Act and the legacy of redlining. Hous Policy Debate. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2019.1665839.

Nardone A, et al. Associations between historical residential redlining and current age-adjusted rates of emergency department visits due to asthma across eight cities in California: an ecological study. Lancet Planet Health. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(19)30241-4.

Nardone AL, et al. Associations between historical redlining and birth outcomes from 2006 through 2015 in California. PLoS One. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237241.

McClure E, et al. The legacy of redlining in the effect of foreclosures on Detroit residents’ self-rated health. Health Place, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.10.004.

Lynch EE, et al. The legacy of structural racism: associations between historic redlining, current mortgage lending, and health. SSM Popul Health. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100793.

Krieger N, et al. Cancer stage at diagnosis, historical redlining, and current neighborhood characteristics: breast, cervical, lung, and colorectal cancer, Massachusetts, 2001-2015. Am J Epidemiol. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwaa045.

Consumer Financial Protection Bureau. Mortgage data (HMDA). n.d. https://www.consumerfinance.gov/dataresearch/hmda/. Accessed 10 Sept 2021.

Beyer KMM, et al. New spatially continuous indices of redlining and racial bias in mortgage lending: links to survival after breast cancer diagnosis and implications for health disparities research. Health Place. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2016.04.014.

Collin LJ, et al. Neighborhood-level redlining and lending bias are associated with breast cancer mortality in a large and diverse metropolitan area. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-20-1038.

Mendez DD, Hogan VK, Culhane JF. Institutional racism, neighborhood factors, stress, and preterm birth. Ethn Health. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2013.846300.

Choi Y, Unwin J. Racial impact on infections and deaths due to COVID-19 in New York City. arXiv preprint arXiv:2007.04743. 2020.

LaVeist T, et al. Exploring health disparities in integrated communities: overview of the EHDIC study. J Urban Health. 2008. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-007-9226-y.

Diez Roux AV, Mair C. Neighborhoods and health. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05333.x. (Preprint at)

Hirsch JA, Moore KA, Clarke PJ, Rodriguez DA, Evenson KR, Brines SJ, et al. Changes in the built environment and changes in the amount of walking over time: longitudinal results from the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Am J Epidemiol. 2014;180(8):799–809.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Christine PJ, et al. Longitudinal associations between neighborhood physical and social environments and incident type 2 diabetes mellitus. JAMA Intern Med. 2015;175:1311.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mujahid MS, Diez Roux AV, Cooper RC, Shea S, Williams DR. Neighborhood stressors and race/ethnic differences in hypertension prevalence (the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). Am J Hypertens. 2011;24:187–93.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hajat A, et al. Air pollution and individual and neighborhood socioeconomic status: Evidence from the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis (MESA). Environ Health Perspect. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1206337.

Kershaw KN, Osypuk TL, Do DP, De Chavez PJ, Roux AVD. Neighborhood-level racial/ethnic residential segregation and incident cardiovascular disease the multi-ethnic study of atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.114.011345.

Kershaw KN, et al. Association of changes in neighborhood-level racial residential segregation with changes in blood pressure among black adults: the CARDIA study. JAMA Intern Med. 2017. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.1226.

Bower KM, et al. Racial residential segregation and disparities in obesity among women. J Urban Health. 2015. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-015-9974-z.

Acevedo-Garcia D. Residential segregation and the epidemiology of infectious diseases. Soc Sci Med. 2000. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00016-2.

Acevedo-Garcia D. Zip code-level risk factors for tuberculosis: neighborhood environment and residential segregation in New Jersey, 1985-1992. Am J Public Health. 2001. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.5.734.

Jean-Jacques M, Bauchner H. Vaccine distribution - equity left behind? JAMA - J Am Med Assoc.2021.https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.1205. (Preprint at).

Katz IT, Weintraub R, Bekker L-G, Brandt AM. From vaccine nationalism to vaccine equity — finding a path forward. N Engl J Med. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmp2103614.

Lloyd JM. Community development, research, and reinvestment: the struggle against redlining in Washington, DC, 1970-1995. Prog Plann. 2014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.progress.2013.02.001.

Chandler J, Phillips J. Racial, education, and income segregation in the District of Columbia. 2020. https://planning.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/op/page_content/attachments/Segregation%20Report%2011-18-20%20FINAL.pdf. Accessed 4 Sept 2023.

Google Scholar 

United States Census Bureau. B19083 Gini index of income inequality. https://data.census.gov/table/ACSDT5Y2019.B19083?q=Gini&g=040XX00US51,50,11,12,53,10,54,15,16,13,19,17,18,40,41,44,45,01,42,04,48,05,49,46,02,47,08,09,06,30,33,34,31,32,37,38,35,36,39,22,23,20,21,26,27,24,25,28,29,72,55,56_010XX00US&moe=false&tp=true&tid=ACSDT5Y2019.B19083. Accessed 22 Feb 2024.

U.S. Census Bureau. data.census.gov.

DC Office of Planning. Neighborhood Indicators. n.d. https://planning.dc.gov/page/neighborhood-indicators. Accessed 12 Sept 2021.

Open Data DC Neighborhood clusters. https://opendata.dc.gov/datasets/neighborhood-clusters/explore?location=38.893798%2C-77.014470%2C11.84. Accessed 12 Sept 2021.

Shoenfeld S. Mapping Segregation in D.C. 2019. https://www.dcpolicycenter.org/publications/mappingsegregation-fha/?fbclid=IwAR1USyhrd1o_JdCxvk_UDFCJWqVdMVdI_-KZzg0mBVOxxWcBfm0-fkEGEpA#_ftn5.

Google Scholar 

Mendez DD, Hogan VK, Culhane J. Institutional racism and pregnancy health: using Home Mortgage Disclosure Act data to develop an index for mortgage discrimination at the community level. Public Health Rep. 2011. https://doi.org/10.1177/00333549111260s315.

Government of the District of Columbia. DC COVID-19 Vaccination Data. n.d. https://coronavirus.dc.gov/. Accessed 12 Sept 2021.

Government of the District of Columbia. Vaccination Program Phases with Tiers. 2021. https://coronavirus.dc.gov/sites/default/files/dc/sites/coronavirus/page_content/attachments/Vaccination-Program-Phases-with-Tiers.pdf.

Google Scholar 

Manson S, Schroeder J, Van Riper D, Knowles K, Kugler T, Roberts F, Ruggles S. IPUMS National Historical Geographic Information System: Version 18.0 1940_tPH_Major. 2021. p. 18. https://doi.org/10.18128/D050.V18.0.

Book  Google Scholar 

Feldman JM, Waterman PD, Coull BA, Krieger N. Spatial social polarisation: using the Index of Concentration at the Extremes jointly for income and race/ethnicity to analyse risk of hypertension. J Epidemiol Community Health (1978). 2015. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2015-205728.

Krieger N, Kim R, Feldman J, Waterman PD. Using the Index of Concentration at the Extremes at multiple geographical levels to monitor health inequities in an era of growing spatial social polarization: Massachusetts, USA (2010–14). Int J Epidemiol. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyy004. (Preprint at).

Njoku A, Joseph M, Felix R. Changing the narrative: structural barriers and racial and ethnic inequities in covid-19 vaccination. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18189904.

Kahn B, Brown L, Foege W, Gayle H, editors. Framework for equitable allocation of COVID-19 vaccine. National Academies Press; 2020.

Bertocchi G, Dimico A. Covid-19, race, and redlining. SSRN. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1101/2020.07.11.20148486.

Li M, Yuan F. Historical redlining and resident exposure to COVID-19: a study of New York City. Race Soc Probl. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-021-09338-z.

Torrats-Espinosa G. Using machine learning to estimate the effect of racial segregation on COVID-19 mortality in the United States. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2015577118.

Belfki H, et al. Association between C-reactive protein and type 2 diabetes in a Tunisian population. Inflammation. 2012;35:684–9.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Khanijahani A, Tomassoni L. Socioeconomic and racial segregation and COVID-19: concentrated disadvantage and black concentration in association with COVID-19 deaths in the USA. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-00965-1.

Faber JW. Segregation and the geography of creditworthiness: racial inequality in a recovered mortgage market. Hous Policy Debate. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1080/10511482.2017.1341944.

Comments (0)

No login
gif