World Health Organization. Preventing youth violence: an overview of the evidence. World Health Organization; 2015.

World Health Organisation. Adolesent mental health 2021 [26.11.2022]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health.

Salk RH, Hyde JS, Abramson LY. Gender differences in depression in representative national samples: Meta-analyses of diagnoses and symptoms. Psychol Bull. 2017;143(8):783–822.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gomez-Baya D, Mendoza R, Paino S, de Matos MG. Perceived emotional intelligence as a predictor of depressive symptoms during mid-adolescence: a two-year longitudinal study on gender differences. Pers Indiv Differ. 2017;104:303–12.

Article  Google Scholar 

Lien L, Bonsaksen T, Holte Stea T, Kleppang AL, Steigen AM, Leonhardt M. Time trends in self-reported depressive symptoms, prescription of antidepressants, sedatives and hypnotics and the emergence of social media among Norwegian adolescents. PLoS ONE. 2023;18(12):e0295384.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Trafford AM, Carr MJ, Ashcroft DM, Chew-Graham CA, Cockcroft E, Cybulski L, et al. Temporal trends in eating disorder and self-harm incidence rates among adolescents and young adults in the UK in the 2 years since onset of the COVID-19 pandemic: a population-based study. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2023;7(8):544–54.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sivertsen B, Knapstad M, Petrie K, O’Connor R, Lønning KJ, Hysing M. Changes in mental health problems and suicidal behaviour in students and their associations with COVID-19-related restrictions in Norway: a national repeated cross-sectional analysis. BMJ Open. 2022;12(2):e057492.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tørmoen AJ, Myhre M, Walby FA, Grøholt B, Rossow I. Change in prevalence of self-harm from 2002 to 2018 among Norwegian adolescents. Eur J Public Health. 2020;30(4):688–92.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Franklin JC, Ribeiro JD, Fox KR, Bentley KH, Kleiman EM, Huang X, et al. Risk factors for suicidal thoughts and behaviors: a meta-analysis of 50 years of research. Psychol Bull. 2017;143(2):187–232.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Barrigon ML, Cegla-Schvartzman F, Sex. Gender, and suicidal behavior. Curr Top Behav Neurosci. 2020;46:89–115.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee S, Dwyer J, Paul E, Clarke D, Treleaven S, Roseby R. Differences by age and sex in adolescent suicide. Aust N Z J Public Health. 2019;43(3):248–53.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lodebo BT, Möller J, Larsson JO, Engström K. Socioeconomic position and self-harm among adolescents: a population-based cohort study in Stockholm, Sweden. Child Adolesc Psychiatry Ment Health. 2017;11:46.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mousikou M, Kyriakou A, Skordis N. Stress and growth in children and adolescents. Horm Res Paediatr. 2023;96(1):25–33.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ballabrera Q, Gómez-Romero MJ, Chamarro A, Limonero JT. The relationship between suicidal behavior and perceived stress: the role of cognitive emotional regulation and problematic alcohol use in Spanish adolescents. J Health Psychol. 2023:13591053231207295.

Deng Y, Cherian J, Khan NUN, Kumari K, Sial MS, Comite U, et al. Family and academic stress and their impact on students’ Depression Level and Academic Performance. Front Psychiatry. 2022;13:869337.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Vandendriessche A, Ghekiere A, Van Cauwenberg J, De Clercq B, Dhondt K, DeSmet A et al. Does Sleep Mediate the Association between School pressure, physical activity, screen time, and psychological symptoms in early adolescents? A 12-Country study. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2019;16(6).

Valkenburg PM, Meier A, Beyens I. Social media use and its impact on adolescent mental health: an umbrella review of the evidence. Curr Opin Psychol. 2022;44:58–68.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ivie EJ, Pettitt A, Moses LJ, Allen NB. A meta-analysis of the association between adolescent social media use and depressive symptoms. J Affect Disord. 2020;275:165–74.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Perkins NM, Brausch AM. Body dissatisfaction and symptoms of bulimia nervosa prospectively predict suicide ideation in adolescents. Int J Eat Disord. 2019;52(8):941–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sutin AR, Robinson E, Daly M, Terracciano A. Perceived body discrimination and intentional self-harm and suicidal behavior in adolescence. Child Obes. 2018;14(8):528–36.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Southerland JL, Zheng S, Dula M, Cao Y, Slawson DL. Relationship between physical activity and suicidal behaviors among 65,182 Middle School Students. J Phys Act Health. 2016;13(8):809–15.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pearce M, Garcia L, Abbas A, Strain T, Schuch FB, Golubic R, et al. Association between Physical Activity and Risk of Depression: a systematic review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Psychiatry. 2022;79(6):550–9.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Merkel DL. Youth sport: positive and negative impact on young athletes. Open Access J Sports Med. 2013;4:151–60.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kuntz L. On thin ice: Competitive Sports & Youth Mental Health. Psychiatric Times. 2022;39(6).

Morken IS, Viddal KR, von Soest T, Wichstrøm L. Explaining the female preponderance in adolescent depression—A four-wave cohort study. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol. 2023;51(6):859–69.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Moore H, Sayal K, Williams AJ, Townsend E. Investigating the relationship between bullying involvement and self-harmful thoughts and behaviour in young people: a systematic review. J Affect Disord. 2022;315:234–58.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

John A, Lee SC, Puchades A, Del Pozo-Baños M, Morgan K, Page N et al. Self-harm, in-person bullying and cyberbullying in secondary school-aged children: a data linkage study in Wales. J Adolesc. 2022.

Idsoe T, Vaillancourt T, Dyregrov A, Hagen KA, Ogden T, Nærde A. Bullying victimization and trauma. Front Psychiatry. 2020;11:480353.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Orben A, Tomova L, Blakemore S-J. The effects of social deprivation on adolescent development and mental health. Lancet Child Adolesc Health. 2020;4(8):634–40.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rueger SY, Malecki CK, Pyun Y, Aycock C, Coyle S. A meta-analytic review of the association between perceived social support and depression in childhood and adolescence. Psychol Bull. 2016;142(10):1017–67.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jakobsen AL, Hansen CD, Andersen JH. The association between perceived social support in adolescence and positive mental health outcomes in early adulthood: a prospective cohort study. Scand J Public Health. 2022;50(3):404–11.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ystgaard M. Life stress, social support and psychological distress in late adolescence. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 1997;32(5):277–83.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Brendgen M, Poulin F. Continued bullying victimization from Childhood to Young Adulthood: a longitudinal study of Mediating and protective factors. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 2018;46(1):27–39.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Camara M, Bacigalupe G, Padilla P. The role of social support in adolescents: are you helping me or stressing me out? Int J Adolescence Youth. 2017;22(2):123–36.

Article  Google Scholar 

Bronfenbrenner U, Morris PA, Damon W, Lerner RM. Handbook of child psychology. Theoretical Models Hum Dev. 1998;1:993–1028.

Google Scholar 

Mossakowski KN. Social Causation and Social Selection. The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Health, Illness, Behavior, and Society. p. 2154-60.

AGNEW R, FOUNDATION FOR A GENERAL STRAIN THEORY, OF CRIME AND DELINQUENCY*. Criminology. 1992;30(1):47–88.

Article  Google Scholar 

Lew B, Chistopolskaya K, Liu Y, Talib MA, Mitina O, Zhang J. Testing the strain theory of suicide– the moderating role of Social Support. Crisis. 2020;41(2):82–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Norway S. Educational attainment of the population. 2022 [10. December, 2022]. Available from: https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/08921.

Derogatis LR, Lipman RS, Rickels K, Uhlenhuth EH, Covi L. The Hopkins Symptom Checklist (HSCL): a self-report symptom inventory. Behav Sci. 1974;19(1):1–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kandel DB, Davies M. Epidemiology of depressive mood in adolescents: an empirical study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1982;39(10):1205–12.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kleppang AL, Steigen AM, Finbråten HS. Using Rasch measurement theory to assess the psychometric properties of a depressive symptoms scale in Norwegian adolescents. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2020;18(1):127.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Tempski P, Perotta B, Pose RA, Vieira JE. A questionnaire on the quality of life of medical students. Med Educ. 2009;43(11):1107–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Yeung WJ, Linver MR, Brooks-Gunn J. How money matters for young children’s development: parental investment and family processes. Child Dev. 2002;73(6):1861–79.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Piotrowska PJ, Stride CB, Croft SE, Rowe R. Socioeconomic status and antisocial behaviour among children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2015;35:47–55.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Peverill M, Dirks MA, Narvaja T, Herts KL, Comer JS, McLaughlin KA. Socioeconomic status and child psychopatho